Erik Homburger
Erikson
(1902-1994)
was a German developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory
on social development of human beings, and for coping the phrase identity
crisis.
·
Each
of Erikson‘s stages of psychosocial development are marked by a conflict, for
which successful resolution will result in a favorable outcome, for example,
trust vs. mistrust, and by an important event that is conflict resolves itself
around, for example, meaning of one‘s life.
·
Favorable
outcomes of each stage are sometimes known as ―virtues‖, a term used, in the
context of Erikson work, as it is applied to medicines, meaning‖ potencies ―For
example, the virtue that would emerge from successful resolution. Oddly, and
certainly counter- intrusively, Erikson‘s research reveals
with breath-taking clarity how each individual must learn how to hold both
extremes of each specific life-stage challenge in tension with one another not
rejecting one end of the tension or the other.
·
Only
when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are understood and accepted as
both required and useful,
can the optimal
virtue for that
stage surface. Thus,
―trust‖ and mistrust‖ must both the understood and accepted, in
order for realistic ―hope‖
to emerge as a viable solution
at the first
stage. Similarly, ―integrity‖ and ―despair‖ must
both be understood and embraced,
in order for actionable wisdom to emerge as a viable solution at the last
stage.
The Erikson life stage virtues in
order of the stages in which they may be acquired are:
1. Trustvs.mistrust. Is the world a safe
place or is it full of unpredictable events and accidents waiting to happen?
Erikson‘s first psychosocial crisis occurs during the first year or so of life
(like Freud‘s oral stage of psychosexual development). The crisis is one of
trust vs. mistrust.
During this stage the infant is uncertain
about the world in which they live. To resolve these feelings of uncertainty
the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency
of care. If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and
reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to
other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new
crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there are a
source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the
development of fear.
For example, if the care has been harsh or
inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant will develop a
sense of mistrust and will not have confidence in the world around them or in
their abilities to influence events.
This infant will carry the basic sense of
mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened
insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.
Consistent with Erikson‘sviews on the
importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how the
quality of the early experience of attachment can affect relationships with
others in later life.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. The child is
developing physically and becoming more mobile. Between the ages of 18 months
and three, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from
their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what
they like to wear, to eat, etc.
The child is discovering that he or she has
many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with
toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child‘s growing sense of independence and
autonomy. Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to
explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment which
is tolerant of failure.
For example, rather than put on a child‘s
clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try
until they succeed or ask for assistance. So, the parents need to encourage the
child to becoming more independent whilst at the same time protecting the child
so that constant failure is avoided. A delicate balance is required from the
parent. They must try not to do everything for the child but if the child fails
at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and
accidents (particularly when toilet training). The aim has to be ―self-control
without a loss of self- esteem‖
(Gross, 1992). Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will.
If children in this stage are encouraged and
supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and
secure in their own ability to survive in the world. If children are
criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert
themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may
then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of
shame or doubt in their own abilities.
3. Initiativevs.Guilt. Around age three and continuing
to age five, children assert themselves more frequently. These are particularly
lively, rapid-developing years in a child‘s life. According to Bee (1992) it is
a ―time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as
aggressive‖. During this period
the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other
children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with
the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating
activities.
Children begin to plan activities, make up
games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children
develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others
and make decisions. Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through
criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. They may feel like a
nuisance to others and will therefore remain followers, lacking in
self-initiative.
The child takes initiatives which the parents
will often try to stop in order to protect the child. The child will often
overstep the mark in his forcefulness and the danger is that the parents will
tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much. It is at this
stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for
knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child‘s questions as trivial, a
nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then
the child may have feelings of guilt for ―being a nuisance‖.
Too much guilt can make the child slow to
interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of
course, necessary, otherwise the child would not know how to exercise
self-control or have a conscience. A healthy balancebetweeninitiative and guilt
is important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose.
4. Industry(competence)vs.Inferiority.Industry versus inferiority is
the fourth stage of Erik Erikson‘s theory of psychosocial development. The
stage occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. Children are
at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do
things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child‘s
life as they teach the child specific skills.
It is at this stage that the child‘s peer
group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the
child‘s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by
demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society, and begin to
develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. If children are encouraged
and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel
confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not
encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to
feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or
her potential.
If the child cannot develop the specific
skill they feel society is demanding (e.g. being athletic) then they may
develop a sense of inferiority. Some failure may be necessary so that the child
can develop some modesty. Yet again, a balance between competence and modesty
is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion. The fifth stage is
identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18
years. During this stage adolescents search for a sense of self and personal
identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs and goals.
The adolescent mind is essentially a
mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult
(Erikson p. 245)
During adolescence the transition from
childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more
independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships,
families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.
This is a major stage in development where the child has to learn the roles he
will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will
re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson
suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.
According to Bee (1992), what should happen
at the end of this stage is ―are integrated sense of self, of what one wants to
do or be, and of one‘s appropriate sex role‖. During this stage the body image of the
adolescent changes. Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable
about their body for a while until they can adapt and ―grow
into‖ the changes. Success
in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity. Fidelity involves being able
to commit one‘s self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when
there may be ideological differences. During this period, they explore
possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of
their explorations.
Failure to establish a sense of identity
within society (―I don‘t know what I want to be when I grow up‖) can lead to role
confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about
themselves or their place in society.
In response to role confusion or identity
crisis an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g.
work, education or political activities). Also pressuring someone into an
identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative
identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.
6. Intimacy vs.
Isolation.
Occurring in young adulthood (ages 18 to 40 yrs), we begin to share ourselves
more intimately with others.Weexplore relationships leadingtoward longer term
commitments with someone other than a family member.
Successful completion of this stage can lead
to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within
a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can
lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage
will lead to the virtue of love.
7. Generativity vs.
Stagnation.
During middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs), we establish our careers, settle
down within a relationship, begin our own families and develop a sense of being
a part of the bigger picture.
We give back to society through raising our
children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community
activities and organizations. By failing to achieve these objectives, we become
stagnant and feel unproductive. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of care.
8. Ego Integrity vs.
Despair. As we grow older
(65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity,
and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we
contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see
ourselves as leading a successful life. Erik Erikson believed if we see our
lives as unproductive, feel guilty about our past, or feel that we did not
accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop
despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life
with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.