Situated learning has
antecedents in the work of Gibson (theory of affordances) and Vygotsky (social
learning). In addition, the theory of Schoen field on mathematical problem
solving embodies some of the critical elements of situated learning framework.
Situated learning is a general theory of knowledge acquisition. It has been
applied in the context of technology-based learning activities for schools that
focus in problem-solving skills.
Principles of Situated Learning:
1.
Knowledge needs to be presented in an
authentic context, i.e., setting and applications that would normally involve
that knowledge
2.
Learning requires social interaction and
collaboration.
Multiple Intelligences - the
theory of multiple intelligence was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner,
professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional
notion of intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in
children and adults.
The theory of multiple
intelligences differentiates intelligence into specific 'modalities', rather
than seeing intelligence as dominated by a single general ability. Howard
Gardner proposed this model in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of
Multiple Intelligences. According to the theory, an intelligence must fulfill
eight criteria:
1.
potential for brain isolation by brain
damage,
2.
place in evolutionary history,
3.
presence of core operations,
4.
susceptibility to encoding (symbolic
expression),
5.
a distinct developmental progression,
6. the existence of savants, prodigies and other
exceptional people,
7.
support from experimental psychology, and
8.
Support from psychometric findings.
Gardner proposed eight
abilities that he held to meet these criteria:
Musical-rhythmic and
harmonic: This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms,
tones, and music. People with a high musical intelligence normally have good
pitch and may even have absolute pitch, and are able to sing, play musical
instruments, and compose music. They have sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, meter,
tone, melody or timbre.
Visual-spatial: This
area deals with spatial judgment and the ability to visualize with the mind's
eye. Spatial ability is one of the three factors beneath g in the hierarchical
model of intelligence.
Verbal-linguistic: People
with high verbal-linguistic intelligence display a facility with words and
languages. They are typically good at reading, writing, telling stories and
memorizing words along with dates. Verbal ability is one of the most g-loaded
abilities. This type of intelligence is measured with the Verbal IQ in WAIS-IV.
Logical-mathematical: This
area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning, numbers and critical
thinking. This also has to do with having the capacity to understand the
underlying principles of some kind of causal system. Logical reasoning is
closely linked to fluid intelligence and to general intelligence (g factor).
Bodily-kinesthetic-The
core elements of the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are control of one's
bodily motions and thecapacity to handle objectsskillfully.[8] Gardner
elaboratestosaythat this also includes a sense of timing, a clear sense of the
goal of a physical action, along with the ability totrain responses.
People who have high
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should be generally good at physical activities
such as sports, dance, acting, and making things.
Gardner believes that
careers that suit those with high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence include:
athletes, dancers, musicians, actors, builders, police officers, and soldiers.
Although these careers can be duplicated through virtual simulation, they will
not produce the actual physical learning that is needed in this intelligence.
Interpersonal: In
theory, individuals who have high interpersonal intelligence are characterized
by their sensitivity to others' moods, feelings, temperaments, motivations, and
their ability to cooperate in order to work as part of a group. According to
Gardner in How Are Kids Smart: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom, "Inter-
and Intra- personal intelligence is often misunderstood with being extroverted
or liking other people..."[12] Those with high interpersonal intelligence
communicate effectively and empathize easily with others, and may be either
leaders or followers. They often enjoy discussion and debate." Gardner has
equated this with emotional intelligence of Goleman.
Gardner believes that
careers that suit those with high interpersonal intelligence include sales
persons, politicians, managers, teachers, lecturers, counselors and social
workers.
Intrapersonal: This
area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities. This refers
to having a deep understanding of the self; what one's strengths or weaknesses
are, what makes one unique, being able to predict one's own reactions or
emotions.
Naturalistic: Not
part of Gardner's original seven, naturalistic intelligence was proposed by him
in 1995. "If I were to rewrite Frames of Mind today, I would probably add
an eighth intelligence - the intelligence of the naturalist. It seems to me
that the individual who is readily able to recognize flora and fauna, to make
other consequential distinctions in the natural world, and to use this ability
productively (in hunting, in farming, in biological science) is exercising an
important intelligence and one that is not adequately encompassed in the
current list. This area has to do with nurturing and relating information to
one's natural surroundings. Examples include classifying natural forms such as
animal and plant species and rocks and mountain types. This ability was clearly
of value in our evolutionary past as hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it
continues to be central in such roles
as botanist or chef.
This sort of ecological
receptiveness is deeply rooted in a "sensitive, ethical,
and holistic
understanding" of the world and its complexities – including the role of
humanity within the greater ecosphere.
Existential:
Gardner did not want to commit to a spiritual intelligence, but suggested that
an "existential" intelligence may be a useful construct, also proposed
after the original 7 in his 1999 book. The hypothesis of an existential
intelligence has been further explored by educational researchers.
Additional intelligences: On
January 13, 2016, Gardner mentioned in an interview with Big Think that
he is considering adding the teaching-pedagogical intelligence "which
allows us to be able to teach successfully to other people". In the same
interview, he explicitly refused some other suggested intelligences like humor,
cooking and sexual intelligence.
Characterizing Students with Special
Learning Needs
An exceptional child
is one that is different in some way from ―normal‖ to ―average‖
child. The term
―exceptional child‖
includes those with special problems related to physical disabilities, sensory
impairments, emotional disturbances, learning disabilities and mental
retardation. Most exceptional children require a lot of understanding and
patience as well as special education and related services if they are to reach
their full potential development.