A. Early Childhood
•
Brain doubles in
weight after 6 months, weighing about half an adult brain
•
Brain development
proceeds at an uneven pace between 3 and 10 months and between 15 –24 months
•
At birth, 100 billion
neurons, brain cells are present
•
The number of neurons
is constant after birth but they continue to develop
•
Length of axons
increases along with the dendrites which increase in density
•
Second spurt of development
is on the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex
•
Primary sites of brain
growth are the sensory and motor areas
•
Myelination –
connecting of neurons – on the peripheral nervous system
•
Reticular formation –
one controlling attention results to selective attention
•
Allows children to
focus cognitive ability on the elements of a problem or situation
B. Middle Childhood
•
95% of brain growth
is reached at age 9 characterized by interrelated processes
- Cell proliferation (over production of neurons and interconnections)
- Cell pruning (selective elimination of excess cells and the cutting back
of connections )
•
Neurons of the
association areas ( brain‘s sensory motor and intellectual areas) are
myelinized to some degree
•
Laterization of
spatial perception on the right cerebral hemisphere allowing the ability to
identify about relationship between object in space to take place
•
Lateral perception of
forces and objects starts at 6 years old
•
Complex lateral
perception at age 8
- Lateral spatial perception explains the increase of efficiency (children
learned math problems strategies)
•
Two major brain
growth spurts
- Between ages 13 –15
- Cerebral cortex becomes thicker and neuronal pathways become more
efficient
- Energy produced and consumed by the brain is at its height
- Spurts take place in parts that control spatial perception and motor
functions
- Believed that a qualitatively different neural network emerges during
this period enabling teens to think abstractly and reflect on cognitive
processes
- Studies point this stage having the major brain organization occurring
the age of 17 up to early adulthood
- Development focused on the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex
- Older teens deal with problems requiring cognitive functions is easier
than younger teens
Environmental Influences on Development
of Brain
•
Life‘s experiences
have lasting effects on the capacity of the central nervous system to learn and
store information
•
Enriched environment,
enhance growth and structure of the brain while bad environments result to
actual brain damage
Factors
Affecting Development
1.
Maternal Nutrition
2.
Child Nutrition
3.
Early Sensory
Stimulation
Maternal Nutrition. The mother supplies all the nutrition to the inborn fetus, thus she
should take care of the diet by a continuous supply of fresh vegetables, fruits,
minerals and vitamins needed.
Child Nutrition. Adequate nutrition contributes to a continuous brain growth, rapid
skeletal and muscular development.
Early sensory stimulation. Children under 6 years of age tend to be farsighted because their eyes
have not matured and are shaped differently from those of adults that age, the
eyes not only are more mature but can focus better.
Factors that Affect Growth
1.
Genetic history
2.
Nutrition
3.
Medical conditions
4.
Exercise
5.
Sleep
6.
Emotional well being
Exceptional Development
1.
Physical Disabilities
2.
Sensory Impairments
3.
Learning disabilities
4.
Attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder
Physical Disabilities are physically handicapped have impairments that are temporary or
permanent
Causes of Handicaps
A. Prenatal Factors- factors
that affect normal development before or after conception lasting up to the
first semester or third trimester of life
•
Genetic or chromosal
aberrations
•
the transfer of
defective genes from parent to offspring caused by the blood incompatibility of
the husband and wife
•
Prematurity
•
Infection
Caused by bacteria or virus on the fetus in the womb of the mother
•
Malnutrition
•
Irradiation
The exposure of the pregnant mother to radioactive elements
•
Metabolic
disturbances - Inability of the mother on the fetus to make use of food intake
•
Drug Abuse
B. Perinatal Factors
•
Birth injuries
•
Difficult Labor
•
Hemorrhage
C. Postnatal Factors
a. Infections
b. Tumor in the brain
Destroy brain cells connected with the movement thus impairing mobility
• Fractures and dislocations
• Tuberculosis of the bones
TB germs attack bones causing crippling condition
•
Cerebrovascular
injuries - Injuries in the head region enough to cause brain damage
•
Post-seizure or post
- surgical complications
Convulsions after the baby‟s delivery
•
Arthritis
•
Rheumatism
•
Diseases affecting
the spinal column and the muscles‘ locomotion at the back
D. Sensory Impairments
• Visually handicapped
–a form of visual impartment which, even with correction, still cannot achieve
a normal educational performance
Two classes of visual handicap
1.
Visual Impairment- A visual problem that calls for specific modification or adjustments
in the student‘s educational programs. Refers to those who were previously
labeled blind and partially sighted
2.
Blindness - The inability the person to see anything
Visual Acuity Problems the most
common visual problems
1.
Albinism (rapid, involuntary
side movement of the eyeballs or nystagmus)
2.
Cataracts (eye lenses
change from clear, transparent to a cloudy or opaque one)
3.
Macular degeneration
(central part of the retina, the macula, is affected)
4.
Diabetic retinopathy
(hemorrhaging of the tiny vessels of the retina)
5.
Glaucoma (increased
pressure w/in the eye, gradual loss of vision)
6.
Retinis Pigmentosa
(loss of night vision and leads to gradually decreasing peripheral vision)
7.
Retinopathy of
prematurity (deterioration of the retina)
Hearing Impairments – a genetic term for
hearing disability which may either be mild or profound and subsumes the terms
deaf and hard of hearing.
•
Hard of Hearing - Persons who have this disability are those who uses
hearing aids
•
Deafness - Either be prelingual or post lingual sensory
•
Prelingual - Deafness present at birth or occurring before language or speech
development
•
Post lingual - Deafness occurring after speech or language
development
•
Sensory - Neural deafness caused by the physical impairment of the inner ear,
the peripheral hearing nerve and other parts of the auditory system
Classification of Hearing Impaired Children
1.
According to age at
onset of deafness
- Congenitally deaf
- adventitiously deaf
2.
According to language
development
- Prelingually deaf
- Post lingually deaf
3.
According to place of
impairment
- Conductive hearing loss
- Sensory neural hearing loss
- Mixed hearing loss
4.
According to degree of
hearing loss
- Slight
- Mild
- Moderate
- Severe
- Profound
Deaf individuals – those whose hearing
disability precludes successful processing of linguistic information through
hearing with or without a hearing aid.
Deafness – can be prelingual or post
lingual
• Preligual – deafness present at birth or
occurring before language or speech development
• Postlingual – deafness occurs
after speech or language development
Causes of Deafness
a.
Prenatal causes – toxic conditions, viral diseases, congenital defects
b.
Perinatal causes – injury during delivery, anoxia (lack of oxygen),
heavy sedation, blockage of infant‘s respiratory passage
c.
Postnatal causes – diseases, ailments, accidents/trauma
d.
Other causes – heredity, prematurity, malnutrition, Rh factor, overdoes of medicine
e.
Hard of hearing
individuals – those who use hearing aid and can have hearing adequate for the
processing of linguistic information
Learning Disabilities are disorder sin understanding or using spoken and/or
written language ora sensory integration this is the ability to process information
coming from the environment and make use of the information in the process.
Types of Learning Disabilities
1.
Dyslexia (reading)
2.
Dysgraphia (writing)
3.
Visual agnosia
(sight)
4.
Motor aphasia
(speaking)
5.
Dysarthria (stuttering)
6.
Auditory agnosia
(hearing)
7.
Olfactory agnosia
(smelling)
8.
Dyscalculia (math)
Causes:
1)
Problematic
pregnancies
2)
Biochemical Imbalance
3)
Environmental Factors
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder(ADHD) - Interferes with an individual ability to focus (inattention),
regulate activity level (Hyperactivity) or inhibit behavior (impulsivity).
Subtypes of ADHD
1)
Predominantly
inattentive
2)
predominantly
hyperactive-impulsive
3)
combined type
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) - Characterized by withdrawal, politeness and shyness
and the absence of hyperactivity.
•
Behavioral
Differences Between ADHD and ADD
•
Decision Making ADHD
Impulsive ADD sluggish
•
Attention Seeking
Show off, egoistical, relishes in being the worst Modest, shy, often socially
withdrawn
•
Assertiveness Bossy,
often irritating Under assertive, overly polite and docile
•
Recognizing
Boundaries Intrusive Honors boundaries
•
Occasionally
rebellious Usually polite and obedient
•
Popularity Attract
new friends but has difficulty bonding Bonds but does not easily attract
friends
•
Associated Diagnosis
Oppositional defiance, conduct disorder Depression
Causes of ADHD
•
Imbalance in certain
neurotransmitters (most likely dopamine and serotonin)
•
Difficult pregnancies
and problem deliveries
Some Facts about ADHD
•
There is a
possibility that ADHD can be inherited
•
It is possible to
have ADHD-like behavior and not ADHD
Schools and classroom
operations can inadvertently create or enhance ADHD like behavior in students
when:
•
Teachers tend to
cover curriculum
•
Teachers resort to
teacher talk as the prevailing mode of instruction
•
Room arrangements
provide isolation
•
Discipline is
arbitrary and unfair coming from different kinds of teachers
•
There are few opportunities
to move around
•
Classroom atmosphere
is not conducive to learning
•
There is no
interaction taking place
•
Classroom emotional
climate causes stress
What educators need to consider when faced with ADHD
conditions?
•
Educators must start identifying
areas where difficulties occur
•
Teachers need to be
active, positive, and well-versed in problem solving along with traits like understanding,
patience and passion for teaching
•
Linguistics and
Literacy Development of Children and Adolescents
Natural
History of Language Development
Language Development - is a process that starts early in human life.
When a person begins to acquire language by learning it as it is spoken
and by mimicry. Children‘s language development moves from simplicity to
complexity. Infants start without a language. Yet by four months of age, babies
can read lips and discriminate speech sounds.
Traditional Learning view holds that language development depends upon the principles of
reinforcement
From the point of View of other learning theorists, language is
primarily learned through imitation
Noam Chomsky exposes the nativist approach to language development, asserts that children
have an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that enables them to learn a
language early and quickly
Modern theorists hold an interactionist view that recognize children as biologically
prepared for language but requires extensive experience with spoken language
for adequate development
Jerome Bruner emphasizes the critical roles of parents and other early caregivers play
in language development through the Language Acquisition Support System(LASS).
Antecedents of Language Development
•
Pseudo dialogues – the give and take of conversation
•
Protodeclaratives – the use of gestures to make some sort of statement about an object
•
Protoimperatives – gestures are used to get someone to do something he/she wants
Bilingual Language Development
Bilingualism
– learning two language simultaneously. Affords advanced cognitive skills,
flexibility of thought and greater acceptance of peers from other cultural
background
Cognitive Advantages:
•
Doesn‘t impact on
early language milestone
•
Infants readily
discriminate between the two languages phonologically and grammatically in
bilingual homes
•
Learning grammatical
devices in one language facilitate learning corresponding devices in the other
language
•
Associated with an
advantage on metalinguistic ability or capacity to think about language among
preschool and school age children
•
Most bilingual
children manifest greater ability than monolingual children when it comes to
focusing attention on language skills.
Cognitive Disadvantages:
•
Limited vocabulary
•
Think more slowly in
the language in which they have the lesser fluency
•
Parents who choose
bilingualism should consider whether they can help their children fluency in
both language
•
Children speaking their
immigrant parents‘ language tend to be attached to their parents‘ culture of
origin and thus are able to speak the language.
Essential Implications of Language and Culture on Learning and Teaching Language:
1.
Children use the four
language systems at the same time in the process of communicating
2.
Children bring their
unique background of experience to the process of learning
3.
Children‘s cultural
and linguistic diversity impact on the student‘s learning process.
Emergent and Early Literacy:
Reading Development and Performance
Fast Mapping-The child’s ability to
map the meaning of a new word onto referent after hearing the word used on
context just once
Holophrase is a single word
used to represent a phrase or sentence and the first stage at language
acquisition
Vocabulary Explosion is the rapid addition of new words to a toddler‘s vocabulary usually
occurs late in the second year.
5 Stages of Language Development (Cobb
2001)
1.
Children speak in
two-word sentence
2.
Children use rules to
inflect words, indicating plurality and tense
3.
Children use rules to
transpose meaning from one form of sentence and another
4.
Children‘s sentences
become increasingly complex in the 4th and 5th stages
5.
Children gradually
learn to read and write in the preschool years
Literacy- A process that begins well
before the elementary grades and continues into adulthood and even throughout
life.
Emergent Literacy - Is a new approach to language arts instruction in kindergarten coined
by Marie Clay, a New Zealand Educator. This is looking at literacy from the
child‘s point of view.
Characteristics of Young
Children as Literacy Learners According to Teale and Sulzby
1. Learning the functions of
literacy through observation and participation in real-life situations where
reading and writing are used.
2. Developing reading and
writing abilities concurrently and interrelated
3. Constructing understanding of
reading and writing through engagement with literacy materials.
3 Stages of Reading by Juel
1.
Emergent Reading - The purpose of communicative print is understood by
children
2.
Beginning Reading - Children learn phoneme-grapheme correspondences and
start to decode words
3.
Fluent Reading - Children have learned to read, decode unfamiliar
words and recognize words automatically
Factors
Affecting Development
A.
Early Language
Stimulation
B.
Literate Communities
and Environment
C.
Story Reading
A. Early Language Stimulation - Learning occurs through the process of equilibrium
or balance on child‘s environment
The Three Steps of the Process
1. Disruption of equilibrium by the introduction of new information
2. Occurrence of disequilibrium followed by the dual processes of assimilation
and accommodation function
3. Attainment of equilibrium at a higher development
Children‘s cognitive development is enhanced through social interaction.
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, asserted that children learn through
socially meaningful interactions and language is both social and an important
facilitator of learning.
Teacher’s role in guiding student’s learning
within the zone of proximal development:
•
Mediate or augment
children‘s through social interaction
•
Flexible and provide
support based on feedback from children as they are engaged in the learning
task
•
Teachers vary the
amount of support from very explicit to vague
•
Elf-Talk - Children‘s
egocentric speech according to Vygotsky
•
Students actively
participate in learning
•
Students learn by
associating new information to acquire knowledge
•
Student organize
their knowledge in schemata
•
Students consciously
and automatically use skills and strategies as learning progresses
•
Students learn
through social interactions
•
Teachers provide scaffolds
for students
Literate Communities and Environment
• Elementary classrooms serve as
venue for language acquisition
• Configuration of a classroom can
be modified to include many facets to facilitate learning
• Teachers play a multifaceted
role in a language classroom
• Teachers begin the process of
establishing a community of learners when they make deliberate decisions about
the kind of classroom culture they want to create
• The classroom environment needs to
be established with in the first two weeks of the school year
• Teachers are classroom managers
• According to Sumara and Walker,
the process of socialization at the beginning of the school year is planned,
deliberate and crucial to the success of the language arts program
Story Reading: Concept of story – knowledge about stories. Young
children are aware of what makes a story (elements, structure such as plot,
character, setting, theme and information about the author‘s style and
conventions.
Exceptional development: Aphasia and Dyslexia: Language disorder refers
to any systematic deviation in the way people speak, listen, read, and write or
sign that interferes with their ability to communicate with their peers
(Crystal, 1987 as cited by Piper, 1998).
Two
Language Disorders:
Aphasia – is the loss of ability to
use and understand language. It excludes other language disorders caused by
physical conditions such as deafness. Can be categorized according to the
particular area
of the brain that is damaged into receptive, expressive and global
aphasias. Receptive Aphasias is also
referred to as sensory aphasia or ―Wernicke‘s Aphasia‖. It results from lesion toa region in the upper back
part of the temporal lobe of the brain called Wernicke‘s area. People
afflicted with this type of aphasia manifest no difficulty in articulation or
dissiliency. In fact their language is characterized by excessive fluency. What
is affected is comprehension resulting in speech marked by repeated patterns of
formulaic phases, by unintelligible sequences of words or odd combinations of
words or even phonemes. Expressive Aphasia is also called motor aphasia and
―Broca‘s Aphasia‖ after the French neurologist who found that damage to the lower back
part of the frontal lobe interferes with speaking ability, is characterized by
severe impairment in articulation and speaking ability. Global Aphasia is characterized by the combined symptoms of expressive and receptive
aphasia.
Dyslexia isa Defective reading. It represents
loss of competency due to brain injury, degeneration, and developmental failure
toepiece with reading instruction. An individual does not have mental defects
but he experiences a severe reading disability. Defective reading is often times
traced from environmental origin. It is genetically determined.
Cognitive Development of the
Children and Adolescents
Cognition is the process of
learning in the broadest sense that includes perception, memory, judgment, and
thinking.
Piaget‟s Observation on the Pattern of Cognitive Development in Children:
•
Children of the same
ages tend to make the same mistakes and get the same answers wrong
•
Errors of children of
a particular age differed in systematic ways from those of older or younger
children
Piaget‟s Main Tenet: The Child Actively Seeks Knowledge
•
Schema (plural, schemata)– an organized unit of knowledge. The child uses to understand a
situation or an experience, which serve as basis for organizing actions
responding to the environment
•
Organization – the predisposition to combine simple physical or psychological
structures into more complex systems
•
Adaption – the process of assimilation and accommodation that are complementary
•
Adoption – adjusting one‘s thinking according to environmental demands
•
Assimilation – making use of an existing schema to the new experience
•
Accommodation – modifying an existing schema to make it work in a new experience
Two Principles of Cultural Influence in Vygotsky‟s Theory
1.
Cultures are varied.
2.
Variations in culture
as well as cultural context must be considered in assessing children‘s
cognitive development.
Egocentric Speech – the transition from the social activity of children to a more
individualized activity; develops the inner speech
Inner Speech – egocentric speech that has been internalized and w/c develops
intellectual capacities
Three Categories of Thinking and Problem Solving:
1. some can be performed
independently by the child
2. Others cannot be performed
even with the help from others
3. Between the 1st two are tasks
that can be performed with help from others
Information-Processing Theories
• Takes the human mind as a
system that process information similar to computer programming
• several basic assumptions:
Thinking is information processing - Mental activity or thinking is putting into the mind whatever information
there is to be processed
Mechanisms of change are important to describe - Mechanisms like encoding, strategy construction,
automation, and generalization all together help in instituting change in the
children‘s cognitive skills
The cognitive system is self-modifying - Child is able to modify his responses to new
situations or problems using the acquired knowledge and strategies from solving
earlier problems
Careful task analysis is crucial- Child‘s cognitive performance is dependent on the problem or solution
and the ability to handle such according to his level of development.
•
Micro genetic
analysis – a close
•
Metacognition – the individual‘s knowledge
Bio-Cultural Theories -One of the most current trends in developmental psychology is established
link between physiological process and development explained through universal
changes and individual differences.
Other Theories:
Nativism - views human as endowed with
genetic traits seen in all members of the species, regardless of differences in
their environment. Environmentalist who adhere to the nativist theory hold that
peculiarities in the behavior can be identified early in life, developed in all
individuals in every culture but do not exist in other species
Ethology points to genetically survival
behaviors assumed to have evolved through natural selection. Emotional
relationships are important for infant‘s survival. to critics, ethnologists
place too much emphasis on heredity; for one, ethological theories are hard to
test for the same reason that behavior like attachment for survival is
difficult to qualify or explain
Sociobiology focuses on the study
of society using the methods and concepts of biological science that emphasizes
genes that aid group survival. To support this views, socio-biologists look for social rules and behaviors that
exist in all cultures (e.g. any society has to put up a set of rules to
regulate conduct of human behavior). critics do not seem to favor the genes and
claim sound rules that govern life in society are passed on over many
generations because they are workable through language, not genes
Behavior Genetics - aver that a broad range of traits and behaviors like intelligence,
shyness, and aggressiveness are the result of heredity. Heredity provides for
individual differences. Environment determine how apparent hereditary traits
affect an individual‘s development, and to what extent. Findings point to
psychological behavior as a product of both heredity and environment
Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Theory - explains development in terms of relationships
between people and their environment, or contexts, as Brofenbrenner calls them.
Contexts of development are like circles within circles.
Macrosystem (or the cultural
context), the outermost circle that contains the values and belief of the
culture in which a child is growing up.
Exosystem (the socio-economic context),
are the cultural institutions which have indirect influence on the child‘s
development.
Microsytem (to the immediate
context), includes those units that have directly influence on the children.
Mesosystem, consists of the
interconnections between the components of microsystem (families, schools,
religious institutions, and neighborhoods). The child‘s development is also
influenced by his genetic make-up. Calls for a way of thinking that development
is a complex of individuals and contextual variables and that development is a
result of combined effects of all contexts
Individual Differences
A. Triarchic Theory of
Intelligence by Sternberg
Three Major Components of Intelligent Behavior:
1.
Information Processing
Skills– required to encode, combine, and compare varying kinds of information
2.
Experience with a
Given Task or Situation – experience can optimize information over repeated
experiences in doing a task
3.
Ability to Adjust One’s
Behavior to the Demand sofa Context– people function according to different situations and try to adapt the
demands of a situation by selecting and shaping other situations as necessary
to meet their own needs
Theory of Successful Intelligence – a man can mold, shape environment to meet his needs
as well as that of society through analytical, creative, and practical
abilities
1.
Analytical abilities– refer to the power to apply logical reasoning to arrive at the best
answer to a question
2.
Creative abilities – imagining and devising new ways of addressing issues
and concerns including present demands
3.
Practical abilities – involve the use of tacit knowledge or common sense
The Gender Schema Theory
•
A theory of Sandra
Bem, evolve from the social approach and is a variation of the cognitive
development theory
•
Postulates an
organizational pattern of behavior that enables children to sort out perceived
information
•
Children develop a
self-concept that fits this particular scheme, adapting for themselves the
society‘s notion of male and female, better known as society‘s gender system
Gardner‟s
Theory ofMultiple Intelligence
Howard Gardner, the exponent of the theory of multiple intelligences, opines
that human beings have seven kinds of intelligences (it was in 1999 that he
added the naturalist intelligence, making them eight)
Two Types of Learning According to Jensen
1.
Associative Learning (Level1
Learning) – involves short-term
memory, rote learning, attention, and simple associative skills
2.
Cognitive Learning (Level2Learning)– a child, as he moves on to a higher level of learning can engage in
abstract thinking, analyzing symbols, learning concepts, and even use language
in problem solving
Achievement Motivation and Intellectual
Performance
•
Achievement
Motivation – comes in various
manifestations:
- Tendency to strive for successful performance
- Elevation of performance against specific standards of excellence
- Experience pleasure out of a successful performance
•
Academic motivation
an impacts on the children‘s performance along w/ experiences in the family,
school, peers, and community
•
Varies according to
the child‘s idea or concept of himself, as a person or as a learner
•
Intelligence – the capacity to think and understand
4 Conceptual Approach of Intelligence
1. Psychometric Approach – refers to measurement of hidden intelligence or mental characteristics
2. Factor Analysis and General Intelligence – similar to the concept of ―factoring‖ in mathematics where complex algebraic expressions
are simplified to arrive at the common multiplier of all terms
-
Spearman proposed two
factor theory of intelligence:
-
the general factor g
or general intelligence
-
the general factor s
or individual tasks
3. Cognitive Approach concerns itself w/ the processes that result to
intelligence behavior
-
aims at describing
the specific components of a given intellectual task and spell out the mental
activities/operations to be able to perform the task
-
psychologist Robert
Sternberg has argued that there is a joint operation of components and meta
components, the higher-order processes that we use to analyze a problem and to
pick a strategy for solving it, of intelligence which include all cognitive processes
that afford the person the ability to respond to stimuli, store information,
perform mental comparisons, arrive at solutions, and engage in a system of
recall from long-term memory
4. Implicit Theory Approach – asserts
that intelligence is that which is used every day
Factors Affecting
Development: Three Factors Affecting Modern Development Psychologist Point to
A.
Universal Changes
·
Changes all
individuals undergo as biological organism
·
Age norms can lead to
ageism, a set of prejudicial attitudes about older adults, analogous to sexism
and racism
B. Group-Specific Changes
•
Changes manifested
and observed from members growing up together in a particular group and hence
influence heavily by the dominant culture
C. Individual Changes
·
Changes typical of
particular individuals and which result from unique, unshared events
·
Differences among
individuals is attributed to genetics differences
·
According to child
development theorists, individual differences are the result of the timing of a
development event: the critical period, the stage at w/c an individual is most
sensitive to the presence or absence of some particular experience and the sensitive
period, the stage at which a child may be particularly responsive to specific
forms of experience or particularly influenced by their absence
·
Atypical Development – another kind of individual change w/c is harmful to
the individual for it deviates from the typical or normal development path
·
Development – a continuous process involving smooth and gradual change over time
and in difficult steps or stages
Theoretical Perspectives on Development
1.
Structural-organismic
perspective– zero in on the composites of
developing organism
•
Freud‘s Psychodynamic
Theory – the deprivation or
satisfaction of child‘s drives that consequently impacts on the later adult
personality
•
Erikson’s Psychosocial
Theory– expanded Freud‘s theory by including social and cultural
factors as influences on the child‘s development as well as to extent the
theory into a life-span perspective
2.
Piagetian Theory– the intellectual development is in focus; development is looked upon
as resulting from the complex reorganizations of understanding as a child moves
from one stage to another in terms of cognitive functioning; asserts the
continuous search for new knowledge, information and experiences that are vital
for his functioning as a fully developed or mature individual
3.
Classical and Operant
Conditioning – early behaviorist proposed that learning is regulated by environmental
factors that define and modify patterns of behavior
4.
Cognitive Social
Learning Theory– emphasizes other than behavior
the concepts of imitation as a form of learning
5.
Information-Processing
Approaches – focus on how a
child process information and uses this as guide in adapting a particular
behavior pattern
6.
Dynamic Systems
Theories– look at individuals as members of a system and that
this dynamic interaction contributes to their development
7.
Contextual
Perspectives – take in account in the matter of psychological development, the
contributions of cultural factors
8.
Ecological theory – a child acquires experiences from the environment,
adds such experiences to the built-in knowledge, and modify his understanding
of the environment
•
Microsystem – focuses on the ways children live and relate to people
•
Mesosystem – the interrelations among the components of microsystem
•
Exosystem – the actual situations a child is in that included the settings that
influence the development of the child and where the child is not directly a
participant
•
Macrosystem – the system that surrounds the microsystem, mesosystem and exosystem; represents
the values, ideologies, and laws of society or culture
•
Chronosystem– the time-based dimension that can alter the operation of all other
systems in Brofenbrenner‘s model
9.
Historical Approaches – acknowledge the contributions of historical events
to human development
10.
Ethological Theory – describes development from a biological-evolutionary
approach; concerns itself w/ the observation of behavior including
distinguishing features that cut across human societies, human cultures, and
even infrahuman species
11.
Evolutionary
Psychology – touches on the
cognitive development and how cognitive capabilities and constraints influence
the process of human evolution and meeting the survival needs
Exceptional Development
•
Every child is unique
to himself, in personality traits, cognitive abilities, in physical stature, in
emotional stability, and others
•
An IQ score above 130
signals intellectual giftedness, whereas a score below 70 in intelligence
testing indicates mental retardation visibly demonstrated by the child‘s
inability to cope w/ appropriate activities of everyday life
·
Can be seen in both
the intellectually gifted and those w/ intellectual deficits
Classification of Intellectual Deficits
1.
Turner Syndrome - a chromosome abnormality found in females in w/c
secondary sex characteristics are developed only w/ the administration of
female hormones. Any abnormality in the internal reproductive organs cause
permanent sterility
2.
Klinefelter‟s Syndrome - A form of chromosome abnormality characterized by
feminine physical characteristics like breast development and rounded broad,
hipped figure
3.
Pervasive
Developmental Disorder - A collections of disorders characterized by gross deficits in many
areas of cognitive, emotional, and social development
4.
Autistic Disorder - A pervasive developmental disorder otherwise known
as early infantile autism or childhood autism
· Characterized by the inability of the children to communicate and interact socially
Features:
- Extreme autistic aloneness– an autistic is a loner and expresses lack of
interest in other people
- Language abnormalities– rather than engage in conversation, the autistic tends to repeat the words rather than reply, answer or engage in conversation
5.
Asperger‟s Syndrome - First identified by an Austrian physician Hans
Arperger (1944) calling it a developmental disorder w/c has many symptoms
similar to that of autism. It is considered a mild form of autism since people
w/ this syndrome manifest a higher mental functioning
·
Asperger‘s Syndrome
and autism differ in the degree of impairment, cognitive ability, the need for
high stimulation, overdeveloped use of imagination, and fewer language deficits
6.
Echolalia – a form of autism where the autistic repeats what is said by another
rather than respond to a question; usually a word for word repetition
•
First recognized in
1980 and sometimes was confused w/ autism
•
Children with
Asperger‘s Syndrome are able to progress in school at a rate farther those who
suffer from autism
•
They do not show
significant language delays and are often able to progress in school at a
satisfactory rate
•
Avoid eye contact w/
others and fail to modulate social interaction in any way
Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence
•
Emotional
intelligence (EQ) – a type of social intelligence that affords the individual
the ability to monitor his own and others‘ emotions, to discriminate among
them, and to use the information to guide his thinking and actions
Three Components of EQ:
1.
The awareness of
one‘s own emotions
2.
the ability to
express one‘s emotions appropriately
3.
the capacity to
channel emotions into the pursuit of worthwhile objectives
Major
qualities that make up emotional intelligence and how they can be developed:
1.
Self–awareness- The ability to recognize feelings as it happens is the keystone of
emotional intelligence; people who have greater certainty about their emotions
are better pilots of their lives
2.
Mood Management - The ability to change mood from good to bad and vice
versa
Relieving Rage:
•
Reframing – a more
effective technique w/c means reinterpreting a situation and looking at it in a
more positive light
•
Going off alone to
cool down is also an effective way to defuse anger.
•
Praying also works
for all moods.
3.
Self–motivation- Trying to feel more enthusiastic and developing more zeal and confidence
to arrive at concrete achievement
4.
Impulse Control- the essence of emotional self-regulation is the ability to delay
impulse in the service of a goal
5.
People Skills - the ability to feel for another person, whether in
job, in romance, in friendship, and in family