Dr. Howard
Gardner’s
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Theory
of Multiple Intelligences
•
The Theory of Multiple Intelligences was created
by Dr. Howard Gardner in 1983.
•
Gardner’s theory places an emphasis on the idea
that the traditional understanding of intelligence by means of IQ testing is
far too limited.
•
To broaden this notion of intelligence, Gardner
introduced nine different types of intelligences consisting of (and to be
elaborated on later): Logical/Mathematical, Linguistic, Musical, Spatial,
Bodily-Kinesthetic, Naturalist, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and
Existentialist
The Nine Intelligences
1. Logical-Mathematical
(Number/Reasoning Smart): Sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or numerical
patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning
•
End States: Scientist, Mathematician
2. Linguistic
(Word Smart): Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words;
sensitivity to the different functions of language
•
End States: Poet, Journalist
3. Musical
(Music Smart): Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre; appreciation
of the forms of musical expressiveness
•
End States: Composer, Violinist
4. Spatial
(Picture Smart) : Capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and
to perform transformations on one’s initial perceptions
• End States: Navigator, Sculptor
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic
(Body Smart): Abilities to control one’s body movements and to handle objects
skillfully
•
End States: Dancer, Athlete
6. Naturalist
(Nature Smart): Abilities to recognize plants and animals, to make distinctions
in the natural world, to understand systems and define categories
•
End States: Botanist, Farmer, Hunter
7. Interpersonal
(People Smart): Capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods,
temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people
•
End States: Therapist, Salesman
8. Intrapersonal
(Self-Smart): Access to one’s own feelings and the ability to discriminate
among them and draw on them to guide behavior
•
End States: Personal with detailed, accurate self-knowledge
9. Existentialist
Intelligence (Role Smart)
Applications
•
Dr. Gardner says that our schools and culture
focus most of their attention on linguistic and logical- mathematical
intelligence, where some unique ways of thinking aren’t addressed.
•
This often leads to kids being labeled as
“learning disabled” or “hyperactive” when they may not be.
• The theory of multiple intelligences proposes a major transformation in the way our schools are run. It suggests that teachers be trained to present their lessons in a wide variety of ways using music, cooperative learning, art activities, role play, multimedia, field trips, inner reflection, and much more
Conclusion
•
An awareness of Gardner’s multiple-intelligence
theory has provided teachers with the knowledge necessary to satisfy the
educational needs of many more students.
•
With an understanding of Gardner's theory of
multiple intelligences, teachers, school administrators, and parents can better
understand the different possibilities of each students’ learning preference.
The application of of multiple intelligences in the classroom can stimulate a
student’s learning in new ways.
William Glasser’s
Choice Theory
What motivates my students?
The Brain Seeks Two Things:
|
Emotion |
Meaning |
|
This is the hook to get students‘
attention and peak interest. |
This how the brain can make sense of the information
coming in...and anchor it to something it already knows. |
Research
Quotes
•
Information stays in short-term memory only briefly.
It moves from short-term to long-term memory only if there a compelling
reason to remember the information—a WHY.
•
More than ninety percent of our reasons
for taking action and remembering –the ―whys– occur in the unconscious mind.
•
The part of the brain that determines what we
remember resides in the same area as emotions. Therefore, if the ―why‖ to
remember something is linked to emotions, it is more likely to be retained
longer than if it is not. ALL LEARNING IS LINKED TO EMOTIONS.
•
Students come to school with their own
―whys—emotional reasons for being there. These ―whys- are basic needs to
survive, to belong and love, to gain power, to be free, and to have fun.
•
Students possessing negative attitudes toward
learning are limited in their ability to transfer their knowledge to new
learning situations.
• Teachers can aid students‘ desire to learn, affecting their emotions and attitudes, by addressing students‘ basic needs through what they say and what they do in the classroom.
William
Glasser’s
Choice Theory
We all make choices according to
basic needs that come from within ourselves. The needs drive our choices and
influence how we behave in those choices.
5
BASIC NEEDS
(according to Glasser)
•
Fun
•
Freedom
•
Power
•
Belonging
•
Survival
•
FUN
•
The need for pleasure
•
To play
•
To laugh
•
Naturally motivating
•
No one has to bribe you to do these things
Try to imagine life without fun...
FREEDOM
•
The need for independence
•
For autonomy
•
For control over one‘s own life
•
For choice
Some students have had little experience with choice...
POWER
•
Empowerment
•
The need to achieve
•
To be recognized for achievement/skills
•
To have a sense of self-worth
•
To contribute
What makes your students feel valued?
BELONGING
•
The need for love
•
For relationships
•
Social connection
• Part of a group
In schools, we must work to make
students (parents, teachers) feel they belong...
SURVIVAL
•
Physiological
•
The need for food, shelter, safety
• Safe from bullying
Schools should be a safe
environment from bodily harm, mental or physical intimidation, abuse.
The
Ten Axioms of Choice Theory
•
The only person whose behavior we can control is
our own.
•
All we can give another person is information.
•
All long-lasting psychological problems are
relationship problems.
•
The problem relationship is always part of our
present life.
• What happened in the past has everything to do with what we are today, but we can only satisfy our basic needs right now and plan to continue satisfying them in the future.
•
We can only satisfy our needs by satisfying the
pictures in our Quality World.
•
All we do is behave.
•
All behavior is Total Behavior and is made up of
four components: acting, thinking, feeling and physiology.
•
All Total Behavior is chosen, but we only have
direct control over the acting and thinking components. We can only control our
feeling and physiology indirectly through how we choose to act and think.
• All Total Behavior is designated by verbs and named by the part that is the most recognizable.
Quality
world
The pictures in our head that we
want to experience in our life. Three clusters
1. People
that are important to us
2. Experiences
– places, activities, things that we want
3. Beliefs
and values – what we believe in If something is not in our quality world it is
not and will not be important to us.
Car
analogy
•
Wheels – front wheels (acting, thinking – more
control), back wheels (feeling, physiology - less direct control)
•
Steering wheel – quality world
•
Engine – needs (drive behaviour)
• Rear view mirror, fuel, passengers,
Applying
It to the Classroom
•
There are two types of teachers, Boss teachers
and Lead Teachers
•
Boss Teachers are those who dwell heavily on
rules and consequences. They use rewards and punishment to recognize good and
bad before. Children are to be motivated by rewards and avoiding punishment.
•
Lead Teachers are those who align lessons and
assignments with students’ basic need as the main focus. A grading system is in
place but is only used as a temporary indicator. They hope students will be
engaged, deeply motivated learners, instead of sitting around and doing busy
work to meet predetermined assignments.
Abraham Maslow’s
Humanistic Existential Paradigm &
Self-actualization Theory
Maslow’s
Assumption
•
Human nature is basically good, not evil
• Normal human development involves the actualization of this inherent goodness
Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs
•
Self-Actualization
•
Esteem
•
Love
•
Safety
•
Physiological
MOST
NEEDS HAVE TO DO WITH SURVIVAL PHYSICALLY AND PSYCHOLOGICALLY
Humanistic Existential Paradigm &
Self-actualization Theory
Maslow’s
Assumption
•
Human nature is basically good, not evil
•
Normal human development involves the
actualization of this inherent goodness
Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs
•
Self-Actualization
•
Esteem
•
Love
•
Safety
•
Physiological
MOST NEEDS HAVE TO DO WITH SURVIVAL PHYSICALLY AND PSYCHOLOGICALLY
ON THE WHOLE AN INDIVIDUAL CANNOT SATISFY ANY LEVEL UNLESS NEEDS BELOW ARE SATISFIED
MASLOW EMPHASIZES NEED FOR SELF ACTUALIZATION IS A HEALTHY INDIVIDUAL’S PRIME MOTIVATION
SELF-ACTUALIZATION MEANS ACTUALIZING ONE’S POTENTIAL
BECOMING ALL ONE IS CAPABLE OF BECOMING
Nobody can do everything,
but we can nearly all do more
than we think we can
THE 17 Metaneeds
1.
Truth
2.
Goodness
3.
Beauty
4.
Wholeness
5.
Dichotomy-transcendence
6.
Aliveness
7.
Uniqueness
8.
Perfection
9.
Necessity
10. Completion
11. Justice
12. Order
13. Simplicity
14. Richness
15. Effortlessness
16. Playfulness
17. Self-sufficiency
Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy
•
Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives
•
1950s- developed by Benjamin Bloom
•
Means of expressing qualitatively different
kinds of thinking
•
Adapted for classroom use as a planning tool
•
Continues to be one of the most universally
applied models
•
Provides a way to organize thinking skills into
six levels, from the most basic to the higher order levels of thinking
•
1990s- Lorin Anderson (former student of Bloom)
revisited the taxonomy
•
As a result, a number of changes were made
(Pohl, 2000, Learning to Think, Thinking to Learn, pp. 7-8)
|
ORIGINAL TERMS |
NEW TERMS |
|
Evaluation |
Evaluating |
|
Synthesis |
Creating |
|
Analysis |
Analysing |
|
Application |
Applying |
|
Comprehension |
Understanding |
|
Knowledge |
Remembering |
COGNITIVE DOMAIN
The cognitive domain (Bloom,
1956) involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This
includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and
concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills.
Six Major Categories
·
Knowledge-Recall data or information.
·
Comprehension-Understand the meaning, translation,
interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem
in one's own words.
·
Application -Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an
abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in
the work place.
·
Analysis -Separates material or concepts
into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes
between facts and inferences.
·
Synthesis -Builds a structure or pattern
from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on
creating a new meaning or structure.
·
Evaluation -Make judgments about the
value of ideas or materials.
Knowledge
Examples or Activity:
multiple-choice test, recount
facts or statistics, recall a process, rules, definitions; quote law or
procedure
Keywords:
arrange, define, describe,
label, list, memorize, recognize, relate, reproduce, select,state
Comprehension
·
Examples or Activity:
explain or interpret meaning
from a given scenario or statement, suggest treatment, reaction or solution to
given problem, create examples or metaphors
·
Keywords:
explain, reiterate, reword,
critique, classify, summarize, illustrate, translate, review, report, discuss,
re-write, estimate, interpret, theorize, paraphrase, reference, example
Application
·
Examples or Activity:
put a theory into practical
effect, demonstrate, solve a problem, manage an activity
·
Keywords:
use, apply, discover, manage,
execute, solve, produce, implement, construct, change, prepare, conduct,
perform, react, respond, role-play
Analysis
·
Examples or Activity:
identify constituent parts and
functions of a process or concept, or de-construct a methodology or process,
making qualitative assessment of elements, relationships, values and effects;
measure requirements or needs
·
Keywords:
analyze, break down,
catalogue, compare, quantify, measure, test, examine, experiment, relate,
graph, diagram, plot, extrapolate, value, divide
Synthesis
·
Examples or Activity:
develop plans or procedures,
design solutions, integrate methods, resources, ideas, parts; create teams or
new approaches, write protocols or contingencies
·
Keywords:
develop, plan, build, create,
design, organize, revise, formulate, propose, establish, assemble, integrate,
re-arrange, modify
Evaluation
·
Examples or Activity:
review strategic options or
plans in terms of efficacy, return on investment or cost- effectiveness,
practicability; assess sustainability; perform a SWOT
analysis in relation to alternatives; produce a financial justification for a
proposition or venture, calculate the effects of a plan or strategy; perform a
detailed and costed risk analysis with recommendations and justifications
·
Keywords:
review, justify, assess,
present a case for, defend, report on, investigate, direct, appraise, argue, project-manage
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
·
includes the manner in which we deal with things
emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations,
and attitudes.
Five major Categories
·
Receiving-Awareness, willingness to hear,
selected attention.
·
Responding- Active participation on the
part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. Learning
outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or
satisfaction in responding (motivation).
·
Valuing-The worth or value a person
attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from
simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on
the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values
are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and are often identifiable.
·
Organizing-Organizes values into
priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them,
and creating an unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating,
and synthesizing values.
·
Characterization or Internalizing-Has a
value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent,
predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional
objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment
(personal, social, emotional).
Receiving
Examples: Listen to others
with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people.
Key Words: asks,
chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points
to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.
Responding
Examples: Participates
in class discussions. Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts,
models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and
practices them.
Key Words: answers,
assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs,
practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.
Valuing
Examples: Demonstrates
belief in the democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural
differences (value diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a
plan to social improvement and follows through with commitment. Informs
management on matters that one feels strongly about.
Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.
Organizing
Examples: Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility for one's behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self.
Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes.
Internalizing
Examples: Shows self-reliance when working independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving. Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for what they are, not how they look.
Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
· includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution.
Reflex movements
·
are actions elicited without learning in response
to some stimuli.
· Examples include: flexion, extension, stretch, postural adjustments
Perceptual
·
refers to interpretation of various stimuli that
enable one to make adjustments to the environment. Visual, auditory, kinesthetic,
or tactile discrimination. Suggests cognitive as well as psychomotor behavior.
·
Examples include: coordinated movements such as
jumping rope, punting, or catching.
Physical activities
·
require endurance, strength, vigor, and agility
which produces a sound, efficiently functioning body.
·
Examples are: all activities which require
a.
strenuous effort for long periods of time;
b.
muscular exertion;
c.
a quick, wide range of motion at the hip joints;
and
d. quick, precise movements.
Skilled movements
·
are the result of the acquisition of a degree of
efficiency when performing a
·
complex task.
· Examples are: all skilled activities obvious in sports, recreation, and dance.
Non-discursive communication
·
is communication through bodily movements
ranging from facial expressions through sophisticated choreographics.
·
Examples include: body postures, gestures, and
facial expressions efficiently executed in skilled dance movement and choreographics.
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
·
Albert Bandura’s (1960s +) Social Learning
Theory
aka Social
Cognitive Theory
· Put the “person” back into personality
Principles of Social Learning
·
Use strategies to gain the students’ attention.
·
Ensure that the observation is not too complex.
·
Link new skills to the student’s prior knowledge
·
Use practice to ensure long-term retention
· Ensure a positive attitude toward a new skill so that the students will be motivated to reproduce or use new behavior
Bandura’s Triadic Model of Reciprocal Determinism
Beyond Reinforcement
Bandura‘s biggest contribution
to learning theory:
·
New patterns of behavior can be acquired in the absence
of external reinforcement
·
We can pay attention to what others do, and repeat
their actions
· i.e., We learn through observation, rather than through direct reinforcement
Self-Regulation and Cognition
We can exercise control over
our behavior through self-regulation
·
We are not slaves to environmental influences
·
We have free will
Cognition allows us to use
previous experiences, rather than trial-and-error, to foresee probable
consequences of our acts, and behave accordingly
Self-regulation allows us to choose behaviors that help us to avoid punishments and move towards long-term goals
Modeling
·
We learn much of what we do through observing
and speaking with others
·
(“models”), rather than through personal experience
· We form a cognitive image of how to perform certain behaviors through modeling, and use this image as a guide for later behaviors
Observational
learning is also known as imitation
or modeling. In this process,
learning occurs when individuals
observes and imitate others’ behavior.
There are four component processes influenced by the observer’s behavior following exposure to models.
Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation
Attention is the first component of observational learning. Individuals cannot learn much by observation unless they perceive and attend to the significant features of the modeled behavior.
Retention is the next component. In order to reproduce the modeled behavior, the individuals must code the information into long- term memory.
Motor reproduction is another process in observational learning. The observer must be able to reproduce the model’s behavior. The observer must learn and posses the physical capabilities of the modeled behavior.
Motivation or Reinforcements In this process, the observer expects to receive positive reinforcements for the modeled behavior.
Environmental experience is a second influence of the social learning of violence in children. Albert Bandura reported that individuals that live in high crime rates areas are more likely to act violently than those who dwell in low-crime areas.
Albert Bandura believed television was a source of behavior
modeling.
Since aggression is a
prominent feature of many shows, children who have a high
degree of exposure to the media may exhibit a relatively high incidence of hostility themselves in imitation of the aggression they have witnessed.
For example,
David Phillips reported homicide rates increase tremendously after a heavy weight championship fight . There have been a number of deaths linked to violence on television.
Summary
We acquire, maintain, and
modify behaviors that we see others perform
We decide which behaviors to
keep, and when to use them, by using:
·
symbolic thought
·
emotion
·
self-regulation (“I really want to stab my prof,
but I need an A, so...”)
Bandura and other Social
Learning Theorists put the ―person‖ back into personality by stressing the
interplay of personal factors, environmental factors, and behavior
Words of Wisdom
A person without a goal, happenstance
is his destination.
FAST TALK
1.
Would you choose to be a better husband or a
better father?
2. Better wife or a better mother?
3. If you would tour PNOY around the country, where would you take him? Why?
4. If women were to rule the world by 2020, how different the world would be?
5. If you could bring one possession with you on a deserted island, what would it be and why?
6. If you could be very famous, in what way would you choose?
7. What childhood play do you miss most? Why?
8. How do you consider teaching profession- a masculine course or feminine course?
9. Does crying make a man less of a woman? Why? If you were to be transported to live in a new planet, who will be the three persons you would want to be with you and why?
10. What are the three things you would never do to the person you love?
The Motivation Theories
Motivational Factors in Learning
·
MOTIVATION refers to the initiation, direction,
intensity, and persistence of human behavior.
·
REWARD vs REINFORCEMENT
·
A reward often has the intent of encouraging the
behavior to happen again.
It can be external or internal.
· A reinforcement is intended to create a measured increase in the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of something to the environment.
Other Factors
·
COERCION-
a form of motivation where the avoidance of pain or other negative consequences
has an immediate effect.
· SELF-CONTROL is increasingly understood as a subset of emotional intelligence; a person maybe highly intelligent, yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence to certain tasks.
How do the following motivate you?
·
ACHIEVEMENT
·
GOAL
·
LOVE
·
FAMILY
·
FRIENDS
·
MONEY
·
RELATIONSHIPS/AFFILIATIONS
·
WORKPLACE
· NEEDS
Students and the Need for Differentiated Environments
1.
When students see that Effort = Success, they become
eager and effective learners
2.
When students believe success is due to innate ability,
they are afraid to make mistakes
3.
When tasks are too easy or too hard, students
learn to get by or give up
4.
When task is appropriate for student readiness,
task becomes satisfying
5.
When task is too difficult, brain goes into
escape (fight or flight) mode
6.
When task is too easy, brain goes into
relaxation (sleep-like) mode
7.
Students function best when the task is slightly
difficult for them
8. Matching difficulty level of task to student readiness leads to feelings of student competence – students select more challenging tasks in the future
When a
teacher tries to teach something to the entire class at the same time, “chances
are, one-third of the kids already know it; one- third will get it; and the
remaining third won’t. So two-thirds of the children are wasting their time.”
Lilian
Katz
Motivational Theories
·
DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY grows out of the concept
that we have certain biological needs, such as hunger. As time passes, the strength
of the drive increases as it is not satisfied. Then as we satisfy the drive by fulfilling
its desire, such as eating, the drive’s strength is reduced.
·
David McClelland’s ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY
states that a person needs for three things but people differ in degree in
which the various needs influence their behavior: Need for Achievement, Need for
Power, Need for Affiliation
·
INTEREST THEORY- if a person has a very strong
interest in something, then obtaining outcomes in that area will be very
strongly reinforcing relative to obtaining outcomes in areas of interest.
·
Frederick Herzberg’s TWO FACTOR THEORY concludes
that factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction, while bothers do not,
but if absent lead to dissatisfaction.
·
Motivators (challenging work, recognition, responsibility)
which give positive satisfaction.
·
Hygiene Factors (status, job security, salary
The Behaviorists
Burrhus F. Skinner’s
Operant Conditioning Theory
Operant Conditioning Theory
This theory developed by Burrhus Skinner (1968) refers to learning facilitated through reinforcement and learning that is based upon a pleasure –pain view of human behavior.
Operant Behavior Is Voluntary & Directed by Consequences
B. F. Skinner made the law of effect the cornerstone for his influential theory of learning, called operant conditioning.
· According to Skinner, the organism‘s behavior is “operating” on the environment to achieve some desired goal.
Operant conditioning: learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and weakened if followed by punishment
Operant conditioning
Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)
·
soundproof chamber with a bar or key that an
animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer
·
contains a device to record responses
Skinner Box
A Reinforcer Increases the Probability of the Behavior
It Follows
·
The fundamental principle of behaviorism is that
rewarded behavior is likely to be repeated.
·
This is known as reinforcement
in operant conditioning.
· It also states the positive side of Thorndike‘s Law of Effect.
Positive
and Negative Reinforcement, Positive and Negative Punishment
Application of Operant
Conditioning
·
Structure and feedback in learning – immediate
reinforcement
·
Defined performance goals and immediate
reinforcement at work
· Parenting – reward good behavior, ignore whining, time-out
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)
·
Thorndike was one of the most important early
theorists in animal learning, educational psychology, and behavioral
psychology.
·
Thorndike developed the ―law of effect‖ in 1898,
several years earlier than Ivan Pavlov proposed his law‘s of reinforcement.
· Although the theories are almost identical the two individuals were not aware of each other for many years.
·
two main foci in education were 1) the improvement
of classroom instruction and 2) the measurement of the learner and the products
of learning.
·
wrote three books for his own use that became
classics in educational psychology 1) Educational Psychology (1903), 2) The
Theory of Mental and Social Measurement (1904), and a three volume Educational
Psychology (1913).
The Law of Effect
·
referred to his approach to learning as
connectionism, hypothesized that an organism learned about connections between
situations and types of responses.
·
one of the first to hypothesize that “if all of
these (responses & situational variables) could be analyzed‖ man could be
told what would and would not satisfy him and annoy him in every conceivable
situation.
·
The law of effect refers to “stamping in or
stamping out‖ a response tendency by attaching favorable or unfavorable
consequences.
· the law of effect states “any act which in a given situation produces satisfaction becomes associated with that situation, and when the situation reoccurs the act is more likely to reoccur than before.
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) the leading behaviorist
·
Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov was born 1849 in Central
Russia.
·
son of a village priest and eldest of 11 children.
·
initially intended to enter a theological seminary
but after reading about Darwinian evolution changed his mind and enrolled at
the University of St. Petersburg to study animal physiology.
·
He obtained his degree in 1875 and began to
study medicine in the hopes of becoming a physiologist.
· In 1890 he received an appointment as professor of pharmacology at St. Petersburg Military Academy
Classical Conditioning 1
Will the dog learn to associate the arrival of food with a neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell)?
Principles of Reinforcement
Reinforcer - any event that increases
the frequency of the preceding event
Positive
Reinforcers Negative Reinforcers
Introduce (+) stimulus Remove (-) stimulus
(e.g., food) (e.g., electric shock)
Reinforcers ALWAYS strengthen behavior!
John Locke: An Empiricist Theory of Knowledge
No innate ideas – Theory simplification
Locke‘s reflection on knowing
starts with the problem of theories
·
Given two explanations the one that is most likely
to be true is the simplest
·
Is it possible to construct an explanation of knowledge
without using the notion of innate ideas
According to Locke, “yes”, is one starts with a simple concept (model) of the mind
The
tabula rasa the black slate
Imagine the mind like a blank
slate on which nothing is written (without any innate ideas)
· Let us suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas: How comes it to be furnished? To this I answer in one word, from EXPERIENCE. (John Locke, EHU)
The mind is like a blank slate informed only by sense experience and acts of reflection
Evidence
for Locke’s model (EHU 2:1:6)
Children show no evidence of
innate ideas.
They appear to learn their ideas
·
Copy from adults
·
Education
·
Personal experience
If a child were kept in a room
with no color would have no idea of color
So by “degrees” their minds are
furnished with ideas
Locke’s Contribution
The senses play a role in knowing
by providing data from an “external world” – the ”to be known.”
The ̳external world‘ (reality) imposes itself on consciousness.
However, what is ̳imposed‘ (impressed on
the mind) are ideas.
·
As we have noted there is no means to verify the
correspondence of idea and reality the idea represents.
The mind actively relates the
data together.
· So the mind is ACTIVE in acts of knowing.
Jean Piaget’s Constructivism & Cognitive Development Theory
But
what does this mean?
·
In order to understand something, we MUST be
able to relate it to something else
·
If at all possible, APPLY this knowledge during
the lesson to foster concrete connections
· Differs from traditional view; the mind is a blank tablet
4 Developmental stages according to Piaget
1.
Sensory motor stage (birth-2 yrs)
·
through physical interaction with environment,
child develops set of concepts about reality & how it works
· stage where child is unaware that if an object is not seen it still exists (object permanence)
2.
Preoperational stage (2-7)
Child needs concrete physical situations
and is unable to conceptualize in the abstract
· needs to see, hear, feel in order to understand something
3. Concrete operations (7-11)
Child begins to conceptualize
based on physical experiences
·
creates logical structures to explain his/her
environment
·
abstract problem solving possible
Example: math with #‘s, not objects
4.
Formal operations (12+)
Cognitive structures are like an
adult and include conceptual reasoning
· Piaget classified as a “cognitive constructivist” focusing on processes of the mind and its effects on learning
Constructivism
Constructivism is
an eclectic view of learning that emphasizes four key components: (a) learners construct
their own understanding rather than having it delivered; (b) new learning
depends on prior understandings; (c) learning is enhanced by social interaction
|
Constructivism..What is it? |
|
|
An educational theory that places emphasis on the learner Teacher‘s role: Act as a facilitator |
Based on the idea that All knowledge is CONSTRUCTED based
on previous experiences |
Two Views of Constructivism
•Individual
Contructivism – it emphasizes individual, internal construction of knowledge.
•Social
Constructivism – it emphasizes
that “knowledge exists in a social context and is initially shared with others
instead of being represented solely in the mind of an individual.”
Characteristics of Constructivism
·
•Learners construct understanding.
·
•New learning depends on current understanding.
·
•Learning is facilitated by social interaction.
·
•Meaningful learning occurs within authentic
learning tasks.
Bruner’s Main Concepts
•Representation
1. Enactive Representation
2. Iconic Representation
•Discovery
Learning
·
Discovery learning refers to obtaining knowledge
for oneself.
During the math and science
conference a modified lesson plan was developed with Bruner’s assistance
The
five E‘s:
Engage- do this! Engage
the students and get them interested in learning
Ex: ask a question, define
a problem, surprise them, use problematic situations
Explore
·
Get the students directly involved in the
material
·
Have them work in teams
·
Act as a facilitator
·
Use their inquiry to drive the process
Explain
·
Explanations come from:
-Students working together
-Teacher introducing concepts and
vocabulary for experiences Example: magnets-attracting force
·
This is also the time for the teacher to
determine levels of understanding and clarify misconceptions
·
Drawing, writing and video are great tools to
help the teacher assess development and growth
Elaborate
·
Students expand on concepts learned
·
Make connections
·
Apply understandings to own environment &
world around them
·
These connections lead to further inquiry &
new understandings
Evaluate
·
On-going diagnostic process
·
Can occur at all points of the instructional
process
-Examples: rubrics, teacher
observation, student interviews, portfolios, project & problem based
learning products, etc.
·
Used to guide teacher in further planning of
lessons
· May also be utilized by the students; Ex: Feedback Fridays
To
summarize:
·
Learning is active
·
Engage the students on their own cognitive level
·
Make it interesting!
·
Work in groups
·
Act as a facilitator, not a record player
·
Make learning cyclical. They should have more questions
when the lesson is over!
Cognitivist
Guiding Principles to Gain and Hold Learning
·
Learning experiences should be as pleasant and
satisfying as possible.
·
Whenever possible, lessons should take into
account the interests and students of students.
·
The attention of learners can be gained and held
longer by using different sensory channels and movement.
·
Learners can attend for only so long, and they
differ in their ability to attend.
·
Distractions interfere with attention
·
Learners can attend only to so much info at any
one time.
Erik Erikson Psychosocial Development
Psychosocial
Development Theory
·
Psychosocial
development theory is based on
eight stages of development
·
Erikson‘s theory is based on the idea that
development through life is a series of stages which are each defined by a
crisis or challenge
·
The early stages provide the foundations for
later stages so Erikson says that if a child does not resolve a crisis in a
particular stage, they will have problems in later stages
·
For example, if an adolescent does not establish
his own identity, he will have difficulty in relationships as an adult
The
Stages are as follows:
·
Stage 1 – Oral Sensory
·
Stage 2 – Muscular-Anal
·
Stage 3 – Locomotor
·
Stage 4 – Latency
·
Stage 5 – Adolescence
·
Stage 6 – Young Adulthood
·
Stage 7 – Middle Adulthood
·
Stage 8 – Maturity
Stage 1 – Oral Sensory
·
birth to 1 year (infancy)
·
basic conflict is trust
vs. mistrust
·
the important event is feeding and the important
relationship is with the mother
·
the infant must develop a loving, trusting
relationship with the mother/caregiver
through feeding, teething and comforting
·
failure to resolve this conflict can lead to
sensory distortion, and withdrawal
Stage 2 – Muscular-Anal
·
age 1 to 3 years (toddler)
·
Basic conflict is autonomy vs. shame/doubt
·
The important event is toilet training and the
important relationship is with the parents
·
The child‘s energy is directed towards mastering
physical skills such as walking, grasping and muscular control
·
The child learns self control but may develop
shame, doubt, impulsivity or compulsion if not handled well
Stage 3 – Locomotor
·
age 3 to 6 years (preschool)
·
basic conflict is initiative vs. guilt
·
the important event is independence and the
important relationship is family
·
the child continues to become more assertive in
exploration, discovery, adventure and play
·
the child may show too much force in this stage
causing feelings of guilt
·
failure to resolve this conflict can lead to
ruthlessness and inhibition
Stage
4 – Latency
·
age 6 to 12 years (school age)
·
the basic conflict in this stage is industry vs.
inferiority
·
the important event is school and the important
relationships are teachers, friends and neighbourhood
·
the child must learn to deal with new skills and
develop a sense of achievement and accomplishment
·
failure to do so can create a sense of
inferiority, failure and incompetence
Stage
5 – Adolescence
·
age 12 to 20 years (adolescent)
·
the basic conflict is identity vs. role
confusion the important event is development of peer relationships and the
important relationships are peers, groups and social influences
·
The teenager must achieve a sense of identity in
occupation, sex roles, politics and
·
religion. In addition, they must resolve their
identity and direction.
·
Failure to make these resolutions can lead to
the repression of aspects of the individual for the sake of others (fanaticism)
Stage
6 – Young Adulthood
·
age 20 to 40 years
·
the basic conflict in young adulthood is
intimacy vs. isolation
·
the important event is parenting and the
important relationships are lovers, friends
·
and work connections in this stage, the individual must develop
intimate relationships through work and social life
·
failure to make such connections can lead to
promiscuity, exclusivity and isolation
Stage
7 – Middle Adulthood
·
age 40 to 65 years
·
the basic conflict is generativity vs.
stagnation
·
the important event is parenting and the
important relationships are with children and the community
·
this stage is based on the idea that each adult
must find a way to satisfy, support and contribute to the next generation; it
is often thought of as giving back
·
failure to resolve this stage can lead to
overextension or rejectivity
Stage
8 – Maturity
·
age 65 to death
·
the basic conflict is ego integrity vs. despair
·
the important event is reflection on and
acceptance of the individual‘s life
·
the individual is creating meaning and purpose
of one‘s life and reflecting on life achievements
·
failure to resolve this conflict can create
feelings of disdain
Moral
Development Theory
This is a Lawrence Kohlberg’s
theory based on the assumption that the rate of moral
development varies among
individuals, with some individuals having a relatively high level of moral
reasoning early in life.
Kohlberg’s
Theory of Moral Development
·
Assessed moral reasoning by posing hypothetical
moral dilemmas and examining the reasoning behind people‘s answers
·
Proposed three distinct levels of moral
reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional
·
Each level is based on the degree to which a
person conforms to conventional standards of society
·
Each level has two stages that represent
different degrees of sophistication in moral reasoning.
Levels
of Moral Reasoning
·
Preconventional—moral reasoning is based on external
rewards and punishments
·
Conventional—laws and rules are upheld simply
because they are laws and rules
·
Postconventional—reasoning based on personal
moral standards
1.
Pre- Conventional Moral Reasoning
·
Characterized by the desire to avoid punishment
or gain reward
·
Typically children under the age of 10
2.
Conventional Moral Reasoning
·
Primary concern is to fit in and play the role
of a good citizen
·
People have a strong desire to follow the rules
and laws.
·
Typical of most adults
3.
Postconventional Moral Reasoning
·
Characterized by references to universal ethical
principles that represent protecting the rights or of all people
·
Most adults do not reach this level.
Preconventional
Moral Reasoning
Stages 1 & 2
Stage
1: Punishment & Obedience
·
A focus on direct consequences
·
Negative actions will result in punishments
·
EXAMPLE: Heinz shouldn‘t steal the drug because
he‘d go to jail if he got caught.
Stage
2: Mutual Benefit
·
Getting what one wants often requires giving
something up in return
·
“Right” is a fair exchange.
·
Morals guided by what is “fair”
Conventional
Moral Reasoning
Stages 3& 4
Stage3:
Interpersonal Expectations
·
An attempt to live up to the expectations of
important others
·
Follow rules or do what others would want so
that you win their approval
·
Negative actions will harm those relationships
Stage4:
Law-and-Order
·
To maintain social order, people must resist
personal pressures and follow the laws of the larger society
·
Respect the laws & authority
Postconventional
Moral Reasoning
Stages 5 & 6
Stage
5: Legal Principle
·
Must protect the basic rights of all people by
upholding the legal principles of fairness, justice, equality & democracy.
·
Laws that fail to promote general welfare or
that violate ethical principles can be changed, reinterpreted, or abandoned s
Stage6:
Universal Moral Principles
·
Self-chosen ethical principles
·
Profound respect for sanctity of human life,
nonviolence, equality & human dignity
·
Moral principles take precedence over laws that
might conflict with them,
·
Conscientious objectors – refuses to be drafted
because they are morally opposed to war.
Sociocultural
Theory
This theory is based on the early
works of Lev Vygotsky (1978). This is a cognitive view of learning that
emphasizes student participation in communities of learning. To the
sociocultural theorists, learners are novices under the supervision of one or
more mentors.
Lev Vsgotsky
·
Russian psychologist & philosopher in 1930‘s
usually associated with Social Constructivism
·
Social Constructivism emphasized the effects of
one‘s environment (family, friends, culture & background) have on learning
·
Today, Co-Constructivism Seems to prevail,
incorporating Cognitive and Social aspects
Schema Theory
·
This is a cognitive view of knowledge
elucidating that that the information people store in memory consists of a
network of organized and interconnected ideas. According to this theory, the
organized structured and abstract bodies or info or schemata that a learner brings
to fore in learning new content determine how the learning tasks are
interpreted and what the learner understands from the study. This theory
expounds that each subset of knowledge is stored in a schema, an outline or
organized network of knowledge about a single concept or subject.
David
Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/Subsumption Theory Ausubel, instead of
criticizing the manner of teaching, proposed ways of improving it. He suggested
the use of advance organizers.
Focus of Ausubel’s Theory
·
The most important factor influencing learning
is the quantity, clarity, and organization of the learner’s present knowledge
which consists of facts, concepts, propositions, theories, etc.
·
The way to strengthen the student’s cognitive
structure is by using advance organizers that allow students to already have a
bird’s eye view or to see the big picture of the topic to be learned even
before going to the details.
FORCE
FIELD THEORY & Change THEORY
Kurt Lewin
Kurt
Lewin (1890-1947)
·
was a famous, charismatic psychologist who is
now viewed as the father of social
psychology. Born in Germany.
·
was well known for his terms “life space” and
“field theory”
·
A Gestalt
psychologist
Kurt Lewin’s Change theory
Unfreeze
– “ready to change”
·
When a structure has been in place for a while,
habits and routine have naturally settled in. The organization as a whole is
going in the right direction, but – as shown on the illustration – people or processes
may have strayed off course. For example, tasks that are not relevant or useful
anymore are still being performed by force of habit, without anyone questioning
their legitimacy. Similarly, people might have learned to do things one way,
without considering other, more efficient methods. Unfreezing means getting
people to gain perspective on their day-to-day activities, unlearn their bad
habits, and open up to new ways of reaching their objectives. Basically, the
current practices and processes have to be reassessed in order for the wheels
of change to be set in motion.
Change – “implementation”
·
Once team members have opened up their minds, change
can start. The change process can be a very dynamic one and, if it is to be
effective, it will probably take some time and involve a transition period. In
order to gain efficiency, people will have to take on new tasks and
responsibilities, which entails a learning curve that will at first slow the
organization down. A change process has to be viewed as an investment, both in terms
of time and the allocation of resources: after the new organization and
processes have been rolled out, a certain chaos might ensue, but that is the
price to pay in order to attain enhanced effectiveness within the structure.
Freeze
(sometimes called refreeze)- “making it stick”
·
Change will only reach its full effect if it’s
made permanent. Once the organizational changes have been made and the
structure has regained its effectiveness, every effort must be made to cement them
and make sure the new organization becomes the standard. Further changes will
be made down the line, but once the structure has found a way to improve the way
it conducts its operations, “re-freezing” will give the people the opportunity
to thrive in the new organization and take full advantage of the change. Many
quote the model as saying the third step of this approach is to re- freeze,
when in Lewins original work it was Mercè Bernaus mbernaus@uab.es “freeze”.
Field
Theory
·
is a psychological theory which examines
patterns of interaction between the individual and the total field, or
environment.
Force
Field Analysis
•
is an influential development in the field of social
science.
•
is a management technique for diagnosing situations.
•
a framework for looking at the factors
("forces") that influence a situation, originally social situations.
Restraining Forces (hindering forces)
Driving Forces (helping forces)
Equilibrium
•
Driving Forces - are those forces affecting
situations that are pushing in a particular direction; they tend to initiate a
change and keep it going.
•
Restraining Forces - are forces acting to
restrain or decrease the driving forces.
•
Equilibrium - is reached when the sum of
the driving forces equals the sum of the restraining forces.
Example
The first step
is to draw a box within which you write the decision. Then you list all the
helping and hindering forces. For example you want to buy a new car.
Having spent some time trying to
think of all the forces in play you then assign a strength to each force
between 1 and 5 where 1 is weak and 5 is strong:
