PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION COMPONENT
Part 2 of the Licensure Examination for Teachers covers the professional education which consists of Facilitating Learning and Child and Adolescent Development, The Teaching Profession, Curriculum Development, Social Dimensions of Education Principles, Methods and Strategies of Teaching, Field Study, Educational Technology and Assessment of Learning.
FACILITATING LEARNING, CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
This subject deals with the nature
of the learner as the basis of the teaching- learning process. It tackles the
growth and development of the child in a life spam approach.
COMPONENTS OF THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS
1. Learner
2. 2
Teacher (involved in the learning process)
3. School
(the learning situation)
THE BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES OF EDUCATION
The Beginning of Life
Life begins at the moment of conception – the time when a reproductive cell of the female (ovum, plural ova) is fertilized by a male reproductive cell the spermatozoon (spermatozoa, plural).This is approximately 280 days before birth.
Within each sex cell
(sperm/egg) there are 23 chromosomes. They are threadlike particles which
contain between 40,000 and 60,000 genes. The genes contain the DNA and RNA
which are considered as blueprint of life and transmitters of hereditary
characteristics traits from the parents to the offspring’s.
Sex Determination
All the female gametes carry X chromosomes, while half of the male gametes carry the X chromosomes and the other half carry the Y chromosomes.
If the X bearing spermatozoon unites with the ovum, it will result to XX combination and the sex of the child is female.
And if the Y bearing spermatozoon unites with the ovum, it will result to XY combination and the sex of the child is male.
Multiple Birth/Twins
The term multiple birth refers to the birth of two or more babies within a few hours or days. There are two types of twin births – the identical and fraternal twins.
The identical or uniovular twins come from a single ovum fertilized by a single sperm cell.
Some times, it happens that at the time of the first division of the cell the new cell separates instead of remaining together. Why the separation occurs, no one knows for certain, but there are evidence that it is a result of hormonal disturbances.
Non-identical, biovular or
fraternal twins on the other hand, are the products of two ova fertilized
simultaneously by two separate sperm cells.
FACTORS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
The factors affecting the growth and development of the individual are:
Heredity – the process by which the new organism is endowed with certain potentials (inherited from the parents) for his later development. Maturation on the other hand is the process by which heredity exerts influence long after birth.
Environmental influence
– interaction between an individual’s inherited traits his surroundings and his
nurture.
PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT
Phylogenetic principle – states that development follows an orderly sequence which is predictable and is true to all members of certain race.
Predictable trends of development
Cephalocaudal trend – development proceed from head to foot direction
Proximodorsal trend – the parts of the body nearest the center
(i.e.) are the parts which develop earlier.
Ex. The baby can see first before he can walk.
Ontogenetic principle – the rate of development is unique to every individual. It is brought about by one’s heredity as well as environmental influences.
Ex. Though both children are
of the same age, one might talk earlier than the
other.
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Hereunder are the stages of development that an individual
passes through in his lifetime:
1. Pre-natal Stage – from conception (when the ovum is fertilized by the spermatozoon producing a zygote or fertilized egg) to the time of birth.
2. Infancy/babyhood (birth to two years)
It is the foundation age when basic behavior patterns are organized and many ontogenetic skills emerge.
3. Early Childhood (two to six years)
It is characterized as pre-gang, exploratory and questioning age. Language and elementary reasoning are acquired and initial socialization is experienced.
4. Late Childhood (six to twelve years)
Gang age, age of creativity, development of social, self help, play and school skill.
5. Adolescence (thirteen to nineteen years)
Transition age from childhood to adulthood when sex maturation and rapid physical development occurs resulting to changes in ways of feeling, thinking and acting.
6. Early adulthood (nineteen to forty years)
Age of adjustment to new patterns of life and new roles such as spouse, parent and bread winner.
7. Middle age (forty to retirement)
Transition age when adjustments to initial physical and mental decline are experienced.
8. Old age (retirement to death)
Increasing rapid physical and mental decline. Psychological as
well as physical illnesses are experienced.
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
The following are the major theories of development:
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY (psycho-sexual development)
This was advocated by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), an Austrian psychiatrist who believed that a person’s behavior can be motivated by strong unconscious drive or urges toward self-satisfaction.
Stages of Development Based on the Psychoanalytic Theory
A. Oral stage (birth to two years)
- Mouth is the center of pleasure
- Failure to satisfy this stage will result later to smoking and
other vices involving the mouth.
B. Anal stage (two to four
years old)
-anal region is the center of pleasure
-gains pleasure in the elimination of bowel
-failure to satisfy this will
result to:
1. Frugality (stinginess)
2. Greediness
3.
Obstinate/stubborn character
C. Phallic stage (four to six
years old)
This is derived from the Greek
work “PHALLUS” which means male sex organ (symbol of strength and power)
derives pleasure from the manipulation of sex organs
Oedipus complex – rivalry between the son and the father to get the mother’s attention
Electra complex –
rivalry between the daughter and the mother to get the father’s attention
D. Latency stage (six to
twelve years old)
- Calm stage
- Conflicting feelings are confined in the sub-conscious mind
-
Energies are diverted to school and peer
activities
E. Genital Stage (twelve
years old and above
- Starts with the onset of puberty
-
The individual is now attracted to the opposite
sex
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
This is based on Lev Vygotsky’s ideas. Vygotsky was born in Russia in 1896 and is responsible for the social development theory of learning.
He proposed that social interaction profoundly influences
cognitive development.
He believed that this life
long process of development was dependent on social interaction and that social
learning actually leads to cognitive development.
- Cognitive development and language are shaped by a person’s interaction with other.
- Children’s knowledge, values and attitudes develop through interaction with other.
- Social interactions that assist in learning increase a child’s level of thinking.
- Students will learn best through activity.
-
Students should be encouraged to communicate
frequently with self and with teacher.
PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY
This theory was advocated by Erik Erikson, who identified eight basic developmental stages that the individual has to pass through in his life.
Each of these stage has a
specific psychosocial crisis that affects the development of the child.
A. Stage 1 (0-18 months)
- Trust vs. mistrust
- The child trust those who care for her and mistrust a stranger
B. Stage II (18 months to
3years old)
- Learns to walk and use his hands
- If encouraged, develops autonomy
- If discouraged and punished harshly and
excessively the child develops dependence and shame, doubt, self pity
C. Stage III (3 to 6 years
old)
- begins to explore his social and physical world, discovering what he can accomplish aware of various social roles imitates adult’s behavior
- When punished develops sense of guilt
-
The family is responsible for the child’s
behavior and action
D. Stage IV (6 to 12 years
old)
-
Child’s world broadens – neighborhood/school
-
Technical skills are learned
-
Peer group influence
-
Identification and/or separation with sexes
-
Play age
-
When the child cannot accomplish the
expectations from him, he develops a sense of inferiority
E. Stage V (12 to 18 years old)
-
Identity crisis –always asking who am I?
-
-Struggles with society’s demands and physical
changes in his body
-
-Peer group becomes an essential source of rules
of behavior
F. Stage VI (18-24 years old)
-
Age of intimacy
-
Develops warm intimate relation with another
person and failure to develop such a relationship results to isolation
G. Stage VII (24 to 54 years
old)
-
The most productive years of adulthood
-
The individual’s worth is dependent on his
contribution to family and society
H. Stage VIII (54 to death)
-
The individual comes to the temporal limits of
his life
-
The period of achievement and sense of integrity
-
Failure to achieve one’s goals results to regret
and despair
-
Fear of the end of life
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (intellectual development)
This theory was advocated by Jean Piaget, who believed that a
child enters the world lacking virtually all the basic cognitive competencies
of the adult, and gradually develops these competencies by passing through a
series of stages of development discussed hereunder.
Cognitive Development Process
Assimilation – (Latin “ad” - to + “similes”– like) absorb as part
of itself.
The individual acquires information or knowledge by which
experiences are integrated into existing schemes
Accommodation – a process of creating a new scheme by modifying an
existing scheme after an individual’s interaction with the environment.
Stages of Development Based on
Pageant’s Theory
1. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (birth
to 2yeas) – learning is based on sense perception
- The child is unaware of his environment
This stage is also characterized by the following events that happen to the child
A. Primary circular reaction – repeated actions centered on the infant’s body.
Ex. thumb sucking
B. Intentional Behavior – the child repeats actions so as to prolong interesting/pleasant events
Ex. Crying to attract attention
C. Object Permanence – knowledge of the existence of objects in his environment, independent of the child’s actions emerges such that the child start to search for missing objects like toy’s etc.
D. Representation – allows the child to seek necessary solution through manipulating of internal symbols instead of physical objects.
Ex. trial and error to solve the problem, manipulation
of toys
2. PRE-OPERATIONS STAGE (2 to 7 years)
- Emergence of language skills
- Interprets experiences
- Words become symbols for objects
The child thinking is egocentric – centered on himself.
Ex. The child is fond of
telling tall tales to get the attention of everyone the child’s thinking is
irreversible – inability to rethink
Ex. Coins are preferred than a
100 peso bill. The child is incapable of logical thinking
3. CONCRETE OPERATIONS (7- 11
years old)
-
Elementary school years
-
The child begins to learn symbol and concepts,
time, space, shape, size etc.
-
The child’s thinking becomes more logical and
systematic
Major Events
Conservation – is the ability of the child to conceptualize the
retention and preservation of the same quantity under various transformations
Ex. Four
.50 coins – Php2.00
1kg. nail = 1kg. Cotton
Reversibility- is the ability of the child to understand the
completion of certain operations in reverse order but ending up the same.
Ex. Ability to understand that
ice and water vapor are the different states of water
4. FORMAL OPERATION (11 to 16
years old – high school years)
-
develops logical reasoning skill
-
decreases egocentricity
THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
This theory was advocated by Laurence Kohlberg, who believed
that as Children grow they pass through several levels of moral development
consisting of different stages which serve as the bases of their behavior as
adults.
LEVEL ONE (Pre-Conventional Morality)
-
Children’s judgements are based on external criteria
-
Right and wrong are according to standards set
by authorities
-
Stage one
-
Behavior is based on reward and punishment
-
Wrong behavior results to punishment
-
Right behavior results to reward and praises
LEVEL TWO (Conventional Morality)
-
Children’s judgement is based on Groups
expectations
-
Stage two
-
Actions are based on self-satisfaction
-
Helps those who help him
-
Stage three
-
Desirable behavior pleases others
-
Conform to rules of the group to remain accepted
-
Stage four
-
What is right is what is accepted
-
Conforms to the rules to avoid disapproval
LEVEL THREE (Post-Conventional Morality)
-
The individual recognizes arbitrariness
(absoluteness) of social and legal
conventions
-
The individual develops concept of moral values
-
Stage five
-
Laws are obligatory (dura lex sed lex)
-
The concept of right and wrong is governed by
reasons
-
Stage six
-
Morality is based on mutual respect
-
The individual conforms to the rules to avoid
self condemnation
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Refers to the idea that no two individuals are exactly the
same or alike, as such, the teacher should make it a point tutelage.
Factors Affecting Individual Differences
Although it is said that all men are created equal, yet
individuals do vary and differ from one another in terms of:
1. Age differences and personal
adjustments
An infant cannot perform the tasks of elementary school pupils though the child is intelligent.
2. Sex differences
- Boys are given roles in the society different from the girls
- Boys are characterized by fearlessness, aggressiveness and are expected to perform burdensome
activities
- Girls on the other hand are characterized by neatness, simplicity and for being affectionate
3. Family and community back ground
4. Physical conditions
Physical ailment/defects affect the learning
process
5. Emotional response and
attitudes (E.Q.)
6. Mental abilities and
specific aptitudes (I.Q.)
Mental Age (determined by a
test)
I.Q. =-----------------------------------x
10
Chronological age (actual age)
Lewis Terman of England is
considered as the father of Modern IQ Test.
|
I.Q. 140+ |
Descriptions Genius |
Persons .25%
more males than females |
|
130-139 |
Very
Superior |
.75% |
|
120-129 |
Superior |
6.00% |
|
110 –
119 |
A bove
Average |
13.00% |
|
90-109 |
Average
(Normal) |
60.00% |
|
80-89 |
Below
Average |
13.00% |
|
70-79 |
Dull
(borderline) |
6.00% |
|
50-69 |
Moron |
.75% |
|
49 below |
Imbecile/Idiot |
.25%
more males than females ( |
|
|
(Feeble minded) |
|
Moron – capable of caring
for his own needs
- has mentality of a 12 year old child
Idiot – has a mental capacity of a 4 years old child
-has a short life span
Imbecile – can be taught concerning his personal needs
- has a
mental capacity of an eight year old child
THE LEARNING PROCESS
Learning is a mental
activity wherein knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes and ideals are acquired,
retained and utilized, resulting in the progressive adaptation and modification
of conduct and behavior (Bugelskie, 1956).
In so far as the behaviorists
are concerned, learning is any change in the behavior of the organism.
TYPES OF LEARNING
Learning is classified into:
Sensory-motor – understanding of the external world through sense
perception.
Development of movements as a
reaction to stimuli.
1. Cognitive – rational/mental/intellectual
development
Association learning –
acquisition and retention of facts and information Establishing relationships
among ideas and experiences
Problem-solving – overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere
with the attainment of a goal.
2. Affective (Appreciative)
involves acquisition of attitudes and interest as well as experiences that will
lift the individual above the tangible values associated with everyday life.
Aesthetic appreciative experiences – obtained in the field of
music, art and literature
Intellectual appreciative experiences – based on the premise that
all learning has emotional correlates
THEORIES OF LEARNING
The following are the major
theories of learning (Morris L. Bigge, 1964):
1. STIMULUS-RESPONSE (S-R) OR
ASSOCIATION THEORY – states that for every stimulus there is a corresponding
response.
Connectionism is the theory under S-R, formulated by Edward
Lee Thorndike in 1900.
It assumes that human
activities are based on the association or connection between stimulus and
response.
It is the belief that all
mental processes consist of the functioning of native and acquired connections
between the situations and response.
It includes the three
fundamental laws of learning:
a.
Law of
Readiness – when an individual is prepared to respond or act, allowing him
to do so is satisfying, whereas preventing him would be annoying.
b.
Law
Exercise – constant repetition of a response strengthens its connection
with the stimulus, while disuse of a response weakens it.
c.
Law of
Effect – learning is strengthened if it results in satisfaction, but it
weakened if it leads to vexation or annoyance.
2. THEORY OF CONDITIONING
states that the process of learning consists of the acquisition of new ways of
reacting to stimuli developed through attaching new stimuli to established
modes of behavior.
There are two types of conditioning theory:
Classical Conditioning is
based on the experiment on the reaction of the dog conducted by Ivan Pavlov, a
Russian psychologist, who postulated that conditioning consist of eliciting a
response by means of a previously neutral or inadequate stimulus.
Principles under Classical Conditioning
a.
Adhesive principle – a response is
attached to every stimulus. For every stimulus, there is always a corresponding
response.
b.
Excitation – also known as the law
of acquisition. It occurs when a preciously neutral stimulus gain the ability
of eliciting the response.
c.
Extinction
– also known as unlearning and occurs when the conditioned response is no
longer elicited by the conditioned stimulus because the conditioned stimulus is
frequently presented without the paired stimulus.
d.
Stimulus
generalization – happens when the conditional response is also elicited by
other stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
e. Spontaneous recovery – happens when a conditioned response which does not appear for some time but re-occurs without need of further conditioning.
Operant Conditioning is a
theory based on the experiment conducted by Burrhus Frederick Skinner on a
hungry rat.
He believed that since an
organism tends in the future to do what it was doing at the time of
reinforcement, one can train that organism either by presenting him a reward or
punishment as a consequence of his action.
Feedback Principle –
states that an organism’s responses maybe reinforced by presentation or removal.
In other words, rewards and punishments.
3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
is based on the studies of Richard Wallace and Albert Bandura concerning
a group of children who were exposed to three models in films.
The first model was rewarded,
the second was punished while nothing was done to the third model.
Children were then asked to
choose among these models.
The children chose the first
model, then the no consequence/model and the last choice was the model who was
punished.
Based on this experiment, it was
viewed that children’s learning process involves observation and imitation.
4. COGNITIVE FIELD THEORY
– otherwise known as Field Theory describes how a person gain understanding of
himself and his world in a situation where his self and his environment compose
a totality of mutually interdependent, coexisting events. This theory defines
learning as a relativistic process by which a learner develops new insights and
changes the old ones.
Types of Cognitive Field Theory
a. Insight Leaning
– a basic sense of, or feeling for relationships. It is used to denote the
meaning of a matter, idea or point.
The Insights of a person are
not equated with his consciousness or awareness of his ability to describe them
verbally; their essence is a sense of, or feeling for pattern in a life
situation.
This theory is based on the
experiment conducted by Wolfgang Kohler on the chimpanzee.
Kohler postulated that the
more intelligent the organism and the more experiences he has the more capable
he is of gaining higher insight.
B .Vector and Topological Theory. Basically, this is derived from the
terms vector which means a quantity that has magnitude and direction and
topology which is concerned with properties of geometric configuration which
are unaltered by elastic deformation.
As a learning theory, it was advance by Kurt Lewin and states that individuals exist on a field of forces within his environment that move, change and give him a degree of stability and substance or define his behavior.
The behavior of an individual
is a result of forces operating simultaneously within his environment and life
space.
C .Gestalt Learning. The word gestalt is a German term which means a
structure, configuration or pattern of physical, biological, or psychological
phenomena so integrated as to constitute a functional unit with properties not
derivable by summation of its parts.
It claims that the whole is
more that the sum of its parts and the whole gets its meaning from its parts.
Gestalt view learning as a change in knowledge, skills, attitudes, values or
beliefs and may or may not have anything to do with the change in overt
behavior.
It further claims that one
does not learn by doing; for learning to occur, doing must be accompanied by
realization of consequences. Thus, learning occurs as a result of or through
experiences.
Learning, therefore, involves
the catching, and generalization of insights which often are acquired first on
a nonverbal level or the level of feeling and may be verbalized later or may
not be verbalized at all.
D .Instrumental Conceptualism is the term applied to the theory of
learning as advocated by Jerome Bruner, who believed that the acquisition of
whatever form of knowledge is always a dynamic and interactive process because
the learner purposively participates in the process of knowledge acquisition
who selects, structures, retains and transform information.
Bruner argued that learning is
thinking and thinking is the process whereby one makes sense out of the various
and somehow unrelated facts through a process called conceptualization or
categorization. (Bigge, 1980)
Subsumption Theory
This theory is based on the works of David Paul Ausubel (1918-
2008), an American psychologist born in New York and an ardent follower of Jean
Piaget
Ausubel’s theory is concerned with how individuals learn large
amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school
setting.
According to Ausubel, learning
is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial
processes that occur during the reception of information.
He considered that a primary process in learning is
subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing
cognitive structure on a substantive non-verbatim basis.
Cognitive structure represent
the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs because certain
details get integrated and lose their individuality identity.
A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use
of advance organizers; “These organizers are introduced in advance of learning
itself, and are also presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality,
and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given organizer or
series of organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for
explaining, integrating and interrelating the material they precede, this
strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming
criteria for enhancing the organization strength of cognitive structure.
Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from
overviews and summaries which simply emphasizer key ideas and are presented at
the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material.
Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing
related ideas.
Ausubel emphasizes that
subsumption involves reorganization of existing cognitive structure not the
development of new structures as constructivist theories suggest. Ausubel was
apparently influenced by the work of Piaget on cognitive development.
Conditions of Leaning
This theory stipulates that there are several different types
or levels of learning.
The significance of these
classifications is that each different type requires different types of
instruction.
This theory of learnings is
based on the work of Robert Mills Gagñe (1916 – 2002), an American educational
psychologist best known for his “Condition of Learning “Gagñe pioneered the
science of instruction during WWII for the air force with pilot training.
Later he went on to develop a
series of studies and works that helped codify what is now considered to be
good instruction. He also was involved in applying concepts of instructional
theory to the design of computer based training and multimedia based learning.
Gagñe work is sometimes summarized as the Gagñe Assumption.
The assumption is that different types of learning exist, and that different
instructional conditions are most likely to bring about these different types
of learning
Gagñe identifies five major categories of learning: verbal
information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and
attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each
type of learning.
For example, for cognitive
strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new
solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a
credible role model or persuasive arguments.
Gagñe suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can
be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition,
response generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations,
concept formation, rule application, and problem solving.
The primary significance of
the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to
facilitate learning at each level.
Prerequisites are identified
by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies
provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.
In addition, the theory
outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes:
1. Gaining attention (reception) – Example – show variety of geometric shapes generated triangles
2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy) – Example – pose question: “What is a rectangle?”
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) - Example – review definitions of rectangle
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception) – Example – give definition of rectangle
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) – example – show example of how to create a rectangle
6. Eliciting performance (responding) – Example – ask students to create 5 different examples
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement) - check all examples as correct/incorrect
8. Assessing performance (retrieval) – Example – check all examples as correct/incorrect
9.
Enhancing retention and transfer
(generalization) – show pictures of objects and ask students to identify
equilaterals.
TRANSFER OF LEARNING
Transfer of learning
occurs when a person’s learning in one situation influences his learning
and performance in other situations
THEORIES ABOUT TRANSFER OF LEARNING
The following are the major
theories concerning transfer of learning:
Mental disciple discipline.
This theory asserts that education is largely a matter of training or discipline
the mind with vigorous mental exercises in the classics, grammar, logic
mathematics, and science on the assumption that such training makes a person
equally effective in all areas where a given faculty is employed.
Apperception is a process of relating new ideas or mental states to
a store of old ones. Memories stored in the subconscious and brought into the
conscious enable one to interpret a given experience.
New ideas are learned through
their being related to what is already in the appreciative mass. Apperception,
therefore, consists of becoming consciously aware of an idea and assimilating
it with other ideas which are already acquired.
In so far as this theory is
concerned, transfer of learning is completely a matter of mechanistic storage
of ideas in aninert mind.
Identical elements is the theory of transfer of learning that is
advocated by connectionism. It states that transfer of learning is facilitated
in a second situation to the extent that it contains identical elements or
factors which occurred in an earlier learning situation.
Among these identical elements
of practical importance are associations including ideas about aims and methods
of general principles and associations involving basic factual experiences
which involve length, color and number which are repeated in different
combination (Thorndike, 1913.)
Identical elements may take
the form of content, procedures, facts, actions, attitudes, techniques or
principles. This theory implies that a school should list the aspects of
situations that are important to the child even out of the school or in later
courses and teach the pupils to cope with different identical experiences or
situations in real life.
Generalization. This theory was advocated by Charles Judd who said
that there are two levels or kinds of knowledge – wrote learning or
memorization without any meaning and generalized knowledge with many
intellectual associations.
He believed that it should
always be in the form which makes generalizations possible. Basically,
generalization is a statement or understanding of relationships, a principle, a
rule or a law.
Generalization is another name
for relating experiences in such a manner that what is gained at one point will
redound to the advantage of the individual in many spheres of thoughts and
actions (Judd, 1939).
Furthermore, for this theory,
transfer of learning is the sensed relationship between the elements of the
situations and it is automatic. Generalization is expected to spring into
action whenever the environment sets the stage for its occurrence.
Gestalt theory of transfer. The Gestaltist advanced the idea of
transposition or the belief that when transfer of learning occurs it is in the
form of generalizations, concepts, or insights which are developed in one
learning situation and employed in other situations.
For them, transfer of learning
is best achieved when a person is in the best frame of mind and he is aware of
the meaning of the situations and experiences as well as their practical
application to his daily life activities.
MOTIVATION
Motivation is derived from the Latin word “movere” which means to move. It is the stimulation of action toward a particular objective where previously there was little or no attraction toward that goal. It is the process of arousing, maintaining and controlling interest. This could explain why the individual always takes what he perceives to be the shortest route to his goals.
TYPES OF MOTIVATION
Motivation is either intrinsic
or extrinsic.
Intrinsic motivation refers to the inherent or internal stimulus of
the individual to learn. It is based on the natural desire of the individual to
satisfy his drives and motives without the need for reward and punishment.
Extrinsic motivation is based on incentives which are artificial
devices which are employed to evoke attitude conductive to learning. Rewards
and praises like medals, good grades, prizes, scholarships and the like as well
as punishments are good examples of this form of motivation