Study Strategies and Thinking Skills

I. Study Strategies and Thinking Skills

A.  Remembering Information

B.  Underlining/Highlighting

C.  Notetaking While Reading

D.  Skimming and Scanning

E.   Summarizing

F.   Test-taking Strategies

 

ll. Reading Comprehension

A.  Critical Reading

B.  Functional Reading

C.  Active Reading

 

Study Strategies and Thinking Skills

Ø Study skills according to Graham and Robinson (1984) are specific abilities which students may use alone or in combination to learn the content of the curriculum on their own.

 

Ø Harris and Smith (1986) state that study skills are those that enable a person to gather information and to organize it in such a way that requires analysis, interpretation, and evaluation.

 

Ø Klein, Peterson, and Simington (1991) claim that study skills are skills necessary for acquiring critical information from a variety of texts and media sources for differing purposes and uses

 

Ø Study skills are skills related to gathering and using information.

 

 

A. Remembering Information

 

1.  Repetition - saying or writing information a number of times

2.  Mnemonics - a technique to remember details such as:

a.   Acronyms are words that are formed by combining some parts (usually the first letters) of some other terms. The term is also used to refer to initialisms, which are combinations of letters representing a longer phrase.

 

 

b.   Abbreviations (from Latin brevis "short") is strictly a shorter form of a word, but more particularly, is a letter or group of letters, taken from a word or words, and employed to represent them for the sake of brevity.

 

c.    Pegwords are words that rhyme with numbers and are used to build associations with the information to be remembered.

 

d.   Keywords are familiar words that lead the reader to the new words to be learned. They can be used to create mental images to remember new words and definitions.

 

e.   Rhymes are words with similar sounds usually found in poetry and songs.

 

f.     Graphic Organizers - are visual representations that show how information is organized.

 

B. Underlining/Highlighting

 

Highlighting and underlining engage the reader to select words, phrases and sentences, as well as, selecting the most important ideas and details in a reading. It makes information stand out so that you can find it easily when you go back to the text to study for a test. Systematically using different colored highlighter pens can make the review process even easier. Familiarity with the techniques is helpful to find rapidly what the reader needs when rereading the passage.

 

Method for Underlining/Highlighting

 

1.   Mark the main ideas and the major details differently.

1.  Underline the main ideas with a double line, and the major details with a single line. Or use a different color high-lighter pen for each.

 

2.  Find main-idea sentences. Underline the sentences or parts of sentences that state the main idea of a paragraph. If the main ideas are only implied, write your own main-idea, sentence in the margin. Find major details and underline these.

 

3.  Circle key words. Use brackets [], asterisks (*), or any other symbol to mark parts that are especially interesting or important to you.

 

4.  Write notes or comments to yourself in the margin. The margins are good places to put down your own thoughts as you read. Margin notes can help you connect ideas from different parts of the selection. They can also help you connect a passage with other material you have read, comments your teacher has made, or your own experience.

 

C. Notetaking While Reading

 

Note taking is the practice of writing down pieces of information in a systematic way. It involves using your own words and a separate notebook to condense the key ideas you have marked in your text while annotating.

 

1. SQ3R (Rowntree, 1976:40-64)

 

a.  Survey - flip through the chapter or book and note the layout, first and last chapters or paragraphs, look at the headings used, familiarize yourself with the reading

b.  Question - Ask questions about the way the reading is structured and think about the questions you will need to keep in mind while reading. Think about whether or not you think the book is relevant or if it's current and if it suits the purpose of your study.

c.   Read - read actively but quickly, looking for the main points of the reading - don't take any notes - you might want to read through twice quickly.

d.  Recall - Write down the main points of the reading and any really important facts, and opinions that help support the main points. Also record the bibliographic details.

e.  Review - repeat the first three steps over and make sure you haven't missed anything. At this point you might like to finalize your notes and re-read your notes or write down how the material you've just covered relates to your question or task.

 

2. The PQ5R Study Method

 

PQ53 is the mnemonic for an effective student regulated approach

to studying the kind of material assigned every day - textbooks. Gaining new information and ideas from a variety of different textbooks demands a balanced and flexible network of study strategies.

 

a.    Preview - know where you're going first. You would never plunge in and try to cross rugged territory if you could have in advance an accurate map of the region. Here is your mental map of a textbook chapter: Examine the title. Read the introduction. Glance at the pictures, charts, and diagrams. Read the wrap-up of the chapter- the summary and review questions.

 

b.    Question -Work through the chapter - one manageable section at a time. A section marked off with a boldface or italic sideheading is likely to be the right size "bite" for you to digest. Be a human question mark. Go into each section with a question in your mind. Turn headings, and sometimes topic sentences, into questions. These should guide you to the main points.

 

c.    Read - Read to find the answer to your question and other important content. Unknown terms say, STOP! LOOK UP! LEARN! Remove these roadblocks. Each pictorial aid is saying, "This is clearing up something important." Shift into back-and-forth reading for pictures, diagrams, and charts. Shift your eyes (and thoughts) back and forth as needed from the printed words to the pictorial aid. Speed up and slow down as needed within the passage. Do stop-and-go reading. Thought time is needed in addition to reading time. Reread as often as necessary. Do “stop-and-go" reading.

 

d.    Record - Jot down or mark important ideas. Make the key ideas stand out in some way so they will "flag" you later. Use any combination of devices. Jot mini notes on a memo slip to be inserted between related pages or in the book's margin. Draw vertical lines in the margin just to the left or right of important content. Bracket key ideas. Underline or color-accent selectively. Now you won't have to reread the entire chapter when you return to review it later. Make key ideas "flag" you.

 

e.    Recite - Students exclaim, I've read that chapter twice, but I still can't remember it." Solve this problem by using the most powerful technique known to psychologists - the technique of self-recitation. As you complete a section or a paragraph, ask yourself, "Just what have I learned here?" Look away from the book while you self-recite, or cover the passage with your hand or with a convenient card (such as 5'x8 index card). Can you recite the important points to yourself in your own words? Now look back at the column of print, whenever you need to, and check your accuracy. Knowing you're going to self-recite when you finish section forces you to concentrate while you're reading.

 

f.     Review - Add a last quick run through. Can you recall the broad chapter plan? Run through the chapter to recall that plan. Next, run through it section by section, checking yourself once more on the main points and the important sub points, Use your cover card again. Make some quick reviews later on from time to time. Long term memory does improve grades,

g.    Reflect -As you read a passage, turn on your critical thinking. Ask yourself: "What does this all mean? Is it true? How can I apply it?" Reading and reflecting should be simultaneous and inseparable - built right into every step of PQ3R.

 

3. Annotating - is a system of marking that includes underlining and notations. A notation system is used for selecting important ideas that goes beyond straight lines and includes numbers, circles, stars, and written comments such as marginal notes, questions and keywords. Annotations are comments, notes, explanations, or other types of external remarks that can be attached to a document or to a selected part of a document.

As they are external, it is possible to annotate any document independently, without needing to edit the document itself. From a technical point of view, annotations are usually seen as metadata, as they give additional information about an existing piece of data.

 

How to use annotation:

a.   Underline important terms.

b.  Circle definitions and meanings.

c.   Write key words and definitions in the margin.

d.  Signal where important information can be found with key words or symbols in the margin.

e.   Write short summaries in the margin at the end of sub-units.

f.    Write the questions in the margin next to the section where the answer is found.

g.  Indicate steps in a process by using numbers in the margin.

 

4. The Cornell Method

This notetaking method has been devised 40 years ago by Walter Pauk, a lecturer at Cornell University. This method is used by dividing the paper in two columns. The first Column is used to enter key or cue words while the second is the notes column (for recording ideas and facts).

 

There are six steps to Cornell note-taking:

 

a.   Record during the lecture, record as many facts and ideas as possible in the notes column.

 

b.   Reduce after the lecture, read through the notes taken and reduce to key words and phrases, or questions. The key words and phrases are used as cues to help recall the ideas and facts.  The questions are to add clarity to the facts and ideas.

 

c.    Recite Using only the key words, phrases and questions in the cue word column recite the ideas and facts in the notes column It is important that you are not just mechanically repeating, but using your own words.

 

d.   Reflect Based on the facts and ideas learnt. Reflect upon how this fits in with what you already know, and how this knowledge can be applied.

 

e.   Review On a frequent basis, review your past notes by reciting and reflecting upon them,

 

f.     Recapitulate After you have reduced, recited and reflected upon your note, you should recapitulate each main Idea using complete sentences at the bottom of the key word column.

 

5. Concept maps and Mind maps - The idea is to map out concepts, either as they are found or received or during the Review process in the Cornell or SQ3R method. Mind maps (i.e. hierarchical trees) can be used to take lecture notes in real time, but more often to organize concepts into a hierarchical tree. Concept maps allow to visualize more complex relationships between different concepts. They allow for example to integrate old and new knowledge and to construct a representation of a complex concept. Finally, concept maps also can be used a design tool. For example, after the initial literature review for a paper or a thesis, a student may create a conjecture map that relates theory to design to observable process to outcomes.

 

6. Charting - is method that helps to summarize the most important concepts found in articles and to identify implicit relations (what concepts go together and which authors). This concept charting technique uses a table with columns representing concepts and rows representing a text.

 

7. Outlining - is a short verbal sketch that show in skeleton form the pattern of ideas in text or a draft prepared for speaking or writing often with main and sub-ideas highlighted by numbers and letters. It is a form of notetaking that gives a quick display of key issues and essential supporting details. It shows indentions, numbers, and letters to show levels of importance

 

D. Skimming and Scanning

 

1. Skimming - means reading only small parts of a text in order to get an overview of the organization of the text and its main ideas. When skimming a paragraph or a page, you are searching quickly among the sentences for the answers to your questions.

Here is how to skim:

a.   Make sure that you know what information you are looking for, ask yourself a question, and look for a key word.

 

b.  Move your eyes quickly from line to line and from sentence to  sentence.

 

c.   When you think you have found what you are looking for, stop.

 

d.  Red slowly the part of the line or sentence that tells yoi what you want to know.

 

e.   Think about the question you were trying to answer.

 

f.    Does the information you found answer the question? If r ot, quickly read the passage again to look for the information you n ;ed.

 

g.  Jot down the answer to the question you've asked.

 

2. Scanning - involves looking quickly through a text to find a specific word or piece of information. Instead of reading every word in a page, readers move eyes quickly, searching for what is needed.

 

Guidelines for Scanning

a.   Understand the organization of the material.

b.  Stay focused on what you are looking for.

c.   Use whatever clues are available to speed your search

d.  Confirm your information.

 

E. Summarizing

- is a method used in stating the main idea and significant supporting details into short, concise statements about the material you have read.

Summaries are full pieces of writing that fit together a selection's facts and ideas in readable sentences and paragraphs which are shorter versions of the original.

 

 

F. Test-taking Strategies

 

1. Read to comprehend - concentrate on the main idea of t! e passage and avoid fixating on details

2. Interact with the passage - predict the topic and activate schema; monitor and self-correct

3. Anticipate - read first sentence carefully, it usually gives cl tes of what is to come

4. Relax - plan your time and concentrate

5. Recall - remind yourself of the author's main point

6. Understand major question types - test questions follow certain predictable patterns

 

a.   Main Idea Questions - ask to identify the author's main point

b.  Detail Questions - check your ability to understand material that is directly stated in the passage

c.   Implied Meaning Questions - deals with the attitudes and feelings of the writer that emerges behind or between words wherein favorable and unfavorable descriptions suggest positive and negative opinions towards the subject.

d.  Purpose Questions - the purpose of the passage is not usually stated but implied and is related to the main idea

e.   Vocabulary Questions - tests general knowledge as well as the ability to figure out meaning by using context clues

7. Multiple-Choice and True-False Tests

a.   Read all options

b.  Predict the correct answer

c.   Avoid answers with 100 Percent" Words

d.  Consider answers with qualifying words

e.   Do not Overgeneralize

f.    True statements must be true without exception

g.  If two options are synonymous, eliminate both

h.  Figure out the difference between similar options

i.     Use logical reasoning when two answers are correct

j.    Look suspiciously at directly quoted pompous phrases

k.   Simplify double negatives by canceling out both

h.  Certain responses are neither true or false

l.     Validate true responses

m.                                                                                                          Recognize flaws in test taking

 

·        Grammar.

·        Clues from other parts of the test

·        Length

·        Absurd ideas and emotional words

 

II. READING COMPREHENSION

A Critical Reading

1. Recognize the author's purpose or intent

a.   To inform. Authors use facts to inform, to explain, to educate, and to enlighten.

b.  To persuade. Authors use a combination of facts and opinions to persuade, to argue, to condemn, and to ridicule.

c.   To entertain. Authors use fiction and non-fiction to entertain, to narrate, to describe, and to shock.

 

2. Recognize the author's point of view or bias

a.   Point of view refers to the opinions and beliefs of the author or of the reader, and a critical reader must recognize how those beliefs influence the message.

b.  Bias is a word closely related to point of view but tends to be associated with prejudice, and thus it has a negative connotation. It is an opinion or judgment that may be based on solid facts or on incorrect information but leans to one side, unequally presenting evidence and arguments.

3. Recognize the author's tone

The author's tone describes the writer's attitude toward the subject. To determine the tone, pick up clues from the choice of words and details.

As a critical reader, tune in to the author's tone by letting attitude become a part of evaluating the message,

 

4. Distinguishing fact from opinion

a.   Fact is a statement that can be proven true or false. It is an observation that can be supported with direct evidence and is something own by actual experience.

b.   Opinion is a statement of feeling that cannot be proven right or wrong.  

It can be a commentary, position, or observation based on fact but represents a personal judgment, belief, feeling or interpretation of these facts,

c.    Recognize valid and invalid support for arguments

Fallacy is an error in reasoning that can give an illusion of support.

On the surface it appears to add support but closer examination shows it to be unrelated and illogical.

They are particularly present in propaganda, a form of writing designed to convince the reader by whatever means possible.

 

The following list describes some propaganda techniques:

·        Testimonials: celebrities who are not experts state support.

·        Bandwagon: you will be left out if you do not join the crowd.

·        Transfer: a famous person is associated with an argument.

·        Straw Person: a simplistic exaggeration is set up to represent the argument.

·        Misleading Analogy: two things are compared as similar that are actually distinctly different.

·        Circular Reasoning: the conclusion is supported by restating it.

 

B. Functional Reading

Readings often contain more than just words.

Graphics accompany the text and knowing how to read these visual aids help the reader how to relate it to the ideas of the selection.

1.  Photographs - to interpret photographs, you need to be able to identify what is being represented and then to infer moods, attitudes, and relations that help give life to the pictures, particularly if they are of people.

2.  Diagrams - are drawings with labeled parts. Notice what the separate parts represented and see how they work together. Labels and captions usually point out the key features and explain how the parts relate to each other.

3.  Word Charts - presents information in summary form to make material easy to find. Instead of using sentences in a paragraph, a writer can present complex information in chart form.

4.  Statistical Tables - present numbers in chart form. Often, the numbers appear in columns with headings to explain what the numbers represent.

5.  Graphs - present statistics visually with lines, bars, or circles that show how statistics compare with each other.

6.  Maps - visually condense material to show relationships. It is a diagram that places important topics in a central location and connects major points and supporting details in a visual display that shows degrees of importance which uses space in a free and graphic manner.

7.  Charts - give information in an abbreviated outline form

 

C. Active Reading Steps

 

1. The main idea of a passage is the core of the material, the particular point the author is trying to convey. The main idea of a passage can be stated in one sentence that condenses specific ideas or details in the passage into a general, all-inclusive statement of the author's message.

Steps in determining the main idea

a.   Recognize general and specific words - look for specific ideas presented in the sentences and decide on a general topic or subject under which ideas can be grouped. The general term encompasses or categorizes the key ideas and is considered the topic of the list.

 

b.   Recognize general and specific phrases - topics of passages are more often stated as phrases rather than single words.

c.    Recognize the General Topic for Sentences - study paragraphs are composed of sentences that develop a single general topic.

d.   Recognize General and Supporting Sentences - sentences are related to a single subject, with two of the sentences expressing specific support and one sentence expressing the general idea about the subject.

e.   Differentiate Topic, Main Idea, and Supporting Details

f.     Questioning for the Main Idea

 

·        Question: Who or what is this about? Question: What are the important details?

 

·        Question: What main idea is the author trying to convey about the topic?

 

2. Stated Main Ideas - are directly stated, particularly at the beginning of a passage. Such an initial main idea statement, thesis statement, or topic sentence is a signpost for readers, briefing them on what to expect. This thesis or main idea statement provides an overview of the author's message and connects the supporting details.

 

3. Unstated Main Ideas - When the main idea is not directly stated, it said to be implied, which means it is suggested in the thoughts that are revealed. In this case, the author has presented a complete idea, but for reasons of style and impact has chosen not to express it concisely in one sentence. As a reader, it is your job to connect the details systematically and focus message.

 

4. Getting the Main Idea of Longer Selections - longer selections have several major ideas contributing to the main point and many paragraphs of supporting details. To pull the ideas together under one central theme, an additional step is necessary: Simplify the material by organizing paragraphs or pages into manageable subsections and then deciding how each subsection contributes to the whole.

The following questions can help you determine the central theme for a longer selection:

 

a.     What is the significance of the title? What does the title suggest about the topic?

b.    How do the first paragraphs suggest the topic or thesis?

c.     Under what subsections can the paragraphs and ideas be grouped?

d.    How do these subsections support the whole?

e.     What is the overall topic?

f.      What point is the author trying to convey?

 

5. The supporting details develop explain, and prove the main idea. They can be facts, descriptions, and reasons that convince the reader and make the material interesting.

Details answer questions and paint visual images so the reader has an experience with the author and sees what the author sees and understands. Details can be ranked by their level of importance in supporting a topic. Some details offer major support and elaboration, whereas others merely provide illustrations to relate the material to the reader's prior knowledge and make visualizing easier.

 

How does a reader grasp the main idea of a selection?

a. Determine the topic of the text. Use the title to predict the topic. b. Ask yourself, "What about the topic is discussed?" to point out the focus of the topic.

c. Review the title to hypothesize about the writer's pattern of text organization. Generally, the rhetorical pattern chosen showcases the main idea and the supporting ideas. Doing the three steps given will help the readers to come up with a main idea even prior to the reading of the actual text. The formula to constructor state the main idea is:    mi = p + f + 1

 

Where

mi = main idea  p = pattern of organization

f= focus of discussion    t= topic

 

Reading Read the entire selection to confirm if the main idea you have predicted matches the writers' main idea. If there is a match, the purpose of your reading is to look for the support ideas. Jot down all the important notes that relate to the main idea. However, if there is a mismatch between your main idea and the writer's main idea, revise or change your hypothesis before you gather the support ideas. Evaluate the notes you have written, and synthesize the ideas you gathered from steps 1-4 to summarize the informational text in two or three sentences. The formula for summary of an expository text is:

Where Set= summary of expository text       Set = mi + si + (sd)

mi = main idea (p + f + 1)

Si = support idea

sd = support detail

 

Directions: Read the portion of a proposal on smoking written below. Then decide who could have written each proposal. Choose and copy the letter of the best answer for each item.

1. I strongly propose that colleges and universities allow smoking among students in the campus during break as a way of easing pressure and tension caused by heavy academic demands.

A. a psychologist

B. a parent

C. a student who smokes

D. a student leader

 

This is a question on critical thinking, specifically on noting point of view. The proposal requires sensitivity to the speaker's word choice and stand on the issue. The words campus, break, academic pressure and tension suggest that a person is very familiar with college life, and the stand is not against, but for smoking. Although choices A, B, and D are also familiar with university life, not all of them would fight for smoking. The best answer is C - the one who is a university student and who smokes would be the most likely to propose the idea.

 

2. Smoking increases the chances of having fire accidents not only in schools but also in all public places - parks, hotels, markets, and villages. It could be a way of endangering the lives of people whose interest the government has promised to serve and protect.

A. a physician

B. a store owner

C. a fire chief

D. a teacher

The analysis done in 1 can be used here, too. Word choice will give a clue as to who is speaking - words such as accidents, places, markets, hotels, government, serve, and protect. Take note that the person's stand is not for, but against smoking. Choice A, physician will not talk about the risks of smoking in this manner and perhaps would not encourage smoking. Choice B, store owner, might cite other reasons and might be ambivalent about the issue - either to fight for or against smoking. A teacher, Choice D, might not advocate smoking, but will offer different explanations. The best answer is choice C. Among the choices, only a fire chief would explain reasons the way it was done in the proposal because of which smoking is not viewed positively.

 

 

3. How would a tobacco grower explain the reason of the proposal for smoking?

A. Smoking indirectly boosts the country's economy.

B. Smoking relaxes the nerves and this helps control negative emotions.

C. Smoking has always been a part of male identity and superiority over women.

D. Smoking benefits the people who consider the plant as their source of income.

This is a thinking skill question which requires an analysis of the person's character as basis for identifying perspective and point of view. Notice that the person involved is a tobacco grower who would encourage smoking for business reasons. Choice A is perhaps from an economist's view, while Choice B could be made by a plain smoker trying to justify the act. Choice C might be a statement by a sociologist talking about gender issues. Choice D is the correct answer because the tobacco grower depends on the plant for a living, and so he/she airs a view from a business or labor perspective.

 

 

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