ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)
✓ social environment
in which children learn has a massive impact on how they think & what they
think about
✓ learning is when
Social Speech becomes Private Speech because the child is now collaborating
with themselves
• ELEMENTARY MENTAL FUNCTIONS
✓ the basic
cognitive processes of Attention, Sensation, Perception & Memory
• MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER (MKO)
✓ person/s more
knowledgeable than the child to work collaboratively operate in the ZPD
• SCAFFOLDING
✓ the process of
enlarging the ZPD with the help of MKO
• PRIVATE SPEECH - internalisation
of speech / the child’s “inner voice”
• SOCIAL SPEECH - occurs between
people.
COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY
✓ explains that
working (or short-term) memory has a limited capacity & that overloading it
reduces the effectiveness of teaching
✓ suggests that IM
and environments should be designed to reduce load
• WORKING MEMORY
✓ works out what
the new information is all about and whether to store it in long term memory or
discard it
3 TYPES OF COGNITIVE LOAD
1. INTRINSIC
✓ how complex the
task is
2. EXTRANEOUS
✓ distractions that
increase load
3. GERMANE
✓ linking new
information with the already stored in the long term memory
5 PRINCIPLES OF REDUCING COGNITIVE
LOAD
1. COHERENCE PRINCIPLE
✓ reducing the
amount of info on each slide/page/worksheet to only i.e. necessary/essential
✓ giving the
student’s working memory fewer stimuli to focus on
2. SIGNALING PRINCIPLE
✓ highlighting the
important details to help students focus on the info
3. REDUNDANCY PRINCIPLE
✓ limiting of text
on resources & avoid reading out the text word for word
4. SPATIAL CONTIGUITY
✓ placing labels
next to the thing they are describing
5. TEMPORAL CONTIGUITY
✓ presenting the
visual images & their labels at the same time
TWO TYPES OF MEMORY
• EXPLICIT MEMORY
✓ conscious
awareness on knowledge or experiences
• IMPLICIT MEMORY
✓ knowledge that we
cannot consciously access
✓ influence of
experience on behaviour
THREE MAJOR MEMORY STAGES
• SENSORY
✓ the brief storage
of sensory information
• SHORT-TERM
✓ temporarily kept
information ( >1 minute) i.e. available to process in working memory
• LONG-TERM
✓ information kept
for days, months, and years
✓ encoding,
storage, & retrieval - 3 process central to LTM
TYPES OF EXPLICIT MEMORY
• EPISODIC MEMORY
✓ personally
experience eventsj
• SEMANTIC MEMORY
✓ facts &
general knowledge
TYPES OF IMPLICIT MEMORY
• PROCEDURAL MEMORY
✓ motor &
cognitive skills
• CLASSICAL CONDITIONING EFFECTS
✓ learning from CC
• PRIMING
✓ changes in
behaviour as a result of experiences (frequently or recently)
SCHEMA THEORY (Buliding Blocks
of Knowledge)
✓ schema contains
groups of linked memories, concepts or words (this grouping of things acts as a
cognitive shortcut, making storing new things in your long-term memory &
retrieval of them much quicker & more efficient)
• BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING
✓ refers to the influence
exerted on your mind by the words on the page
✓ “bottom”
represents the words on the page you are reading from
• TOP-DOWN PROCESSING
✓ refers to
preexisting knowledge (schemata) being used to make sense of the words on the
page
DUAL-CODING THEORY
✓ when lessons are
presented with images, real or imagined aside from mere lecture
✓ images, limited
text & narration (visual and verbal stimuli) are the most efficient way of
reducing extraneous load
METACOGNITION
✓ pertains to a
student’s ability to self-critique their approach to a task & adapt their
thinking to improve their understanding
✓ includes
knowledge about when and how to use particular strategies for learning or for
problem-solving
• THE METACOGNITION CYCLE
✓ Assess the task
✓ Evaluate
strengths & weaknesses
✓ Plan the approach
✓ Apply strategies
✓ Reflect
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
✓ students progress
through a set of sequential needs from physiological (lowest) to
self-actualisation (highest)
as they move up through the levels, they
feel more comfortable in their learning environment and have the confidence to
push further
✓ building
student/teacher relationships rather than lesson or curriculum structure
CUMULATIVE LEARNING THEORY
✓ learning skills
are hierarchically arranged
✓ sequential
learning for cognitive development
HIERARCHY OF LEARNING
1. Signal Learning
2. Stimulus - Response Learning
3. Psychomotor Connection Learning
4. Verbal Association Learning
5. Multiple Discrimination Learning
6. Concept Learning
7. Principle Learning
8. Problem-Solving
GAGNÉ’S 5 CONDITIONS OF LEARNING
1. Verbal Information (Cognitive domain)
✓ development of information
using language
2. Intellectual Skills (Cognitive domain)
✓ ability to
interact with surroundings using concept of symbols
3. Cognitive Strategies (Cognitive domain)
✓ ability to
control one's behavior to learn, remember & think
4. Motor Skills (Psycho-Motor domain)
✓ manipulative
skills & carrying out routine work
5. Attitudes (Affective domain)
✓ change of
attitude towards an object, another person & situation at change
GAGNÉ’S 9 LEVELS OF LEARNING
✓ these 9 levels of
learning activate the 5 conditions of learning and thus, learning will be
achieved
1. Gain attention
2. Inform students of the objective
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning
4. Present the content
5. Provide learning guidance
6. Elicit performance (practice)
7. Provide feedback
8. Assess performance
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the
job
MEANINGFUL LEARNING THEORY
✓ work with how
facts are useful & meaningful to retain info in LTM
✓ learning is
relational, deep, & building a conceptual framework to reality
✓ when materials to
be learned is related to what students already know
VICARIOUS LEARNING THEORY (learn from
mistake/success)
✓ learn by
observing & understanding the reason behind individual's "success or
failure", & then imagining taking the correct course of action,
without needing to actually do the action
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
✓ approach to
cognitive development studies
✓ treat information
as personal & as part of own schema to retrieve concepts contextually a lot
easier
SELF-REGULATED LEARNING THEORY
✓ cyclical process,
wherein the student plans for a task, monitors their performance, & then
reflects on the outcome (the cycle then repeats as the student uses the reflection
to adjust & prepare for the next task)
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
✓ assumes that
people try to determine why people do what they do, i.e., attribute causes to
behavior
DRIVE THEORY
✓ based on the
principle that organisms are born with certain psychological needs & that a
negative state of tension is created when these needs are not satisfied
EXPECTANCY-VALUES THEORY
✓ theory of
motivation that describes the relationship between a student's expectancy for
success at a task or the achievement of a goal in relation to the value of task
completion or goal attainment
OPPONENT PROCESS THEORY
✓ when experience
one emotion, the other is temporarily inhibited but with repeated stimulus, the
initial emotion becomes weaker, & the opposing emotion intensifies
INSIGHT LEARNING
✓ a completely
cognitive experience that requires the ability to visualize the problem &
the solution internally - in the mind's eye, so to speak - before initiating a
behavioral response
MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
✓ defines the
concept of stages of cognitive moral development as the structure of one’s
reasoning
LEARNING STYLE THEORY
✓ calls for
adaptation to the learner’s biological & developmental set of
characteristics
THE PETER PRINCIPLE
✓ not a learning
theory, it does have some crossover to the classroom
✓ could give a
teacher planning a long term teaching strategy a framework to use when thinking
about how students progress
1. UNCONSCIOUS INCOMPETENCE
✓ not knowing how
to do a task without knowing you don’t know
2. CONSCIOUS INCOMPETENCE
✓ you still don’t
know how to do the task but now you know you don’t know (you are aware of a gap
in your knowledge)
3. CONSCIOUS COMPETENCE
✓ you can now do
the task but it requires a lot of concentration
4. UNCONSCIOUS COMPETENCE
✓ you can perform
the task with ease (this is achieved by repeated practice)
LAIRD’S SENSORY THEORY
✓ learning occurs
when the senses are stimulated (75% - seeing, 13% - hearing, 12% - touch, smell
& taste combined)
✓ making your
lessons a multi-sensual experience will enhance learning even further.
CANTER’S THEORY OF ASSERTIVE
DISCIPLINE
✓ structured system
to enable teachers to manage their classrooms
✓ focuses on the
teacher developing a positive behavior management strategy rather than being
dictatorial
✓ teacher has the
right to decide what is best for their students and that no student should
prevent any other from learning
DREIKUR’S CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
THEORY
✓ desire to belong
or “genuine goal of social behavior”
✓ resulting
misbehavior is a misguided attempt at gaining the sense of belonging they are
missing
✓ mutual respect
should be the basis for discipline/positive behaviors
HOW TO COMBAT THE 4 GOALS OF
MISBEHAVIOR
1. GAIN GETTING
✓ ignore the
attention-seeking & use positive reinforcement when positive behavior is
shown
✓ distract the
student by offering alternate actions or choices
2. POWER SEEKING
✓ focus on all the
good behavior in the class, while ignoring the attempt to gain power
✓ black dot, white
square approach - no account should you engage in a battle for power
3. REVENGE SEEKING
✓ away from other
students, let the student know that you care about them & their education,
that despite their actions you want the best for them
4. WITHDRAWAL
✓ students at this
stage should be shown how to recognise small successes & achievements
✓ showing an
interest in them & their work will always help slowly bring a student out
of this stage
DESCRIPTION:
ATTENTION GETTING
✓ Students seek the
attention of their classmates and
teachers because students are not getting the recognition they desire, continually
seek help, and refuse to work
POWER SEEKING
✓ child asserts his
aggressiveness & expresses his defiance in acquiring, contradicting,
teasing, temper-tantrums, & low level hostile behavior
REVENGE SEEKING
✓ child hurt others
to make for being hurt or rejected
WITHDRAWAL
✓ child wants to
isolate self simply because he is no longer interested to learn & therefore
he withdraws learning which can be manifested in actions like doing nothing,
yawning, sleeping, & daydreaming
APPROACH TO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
1. ASSERTIVE APPROACH
✓ specify rules
& consequences for disobeying them & to communicate these clearly
2. BUSINESS ACADEMIC APPROACH
✓ emphasizes the
organization & management/procedure of students as they engage in academic
work
3. BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION APPROACH
✓ involves variety
of techniques & methods of ranging simple rewards to elaborate
reinforcement
4. GROUP MANAGERIAL APPROACH
✓ immediate
response to undesirable group student behavior inorder to prevent the problem
5. GROUP GUIDANCE APPROACH
✓ changing the
surface behavior of the student on a group basis
6. ACCEPTANCE APPROACH
✓ maintain every
student's needs to feel acceptance & belongingness
7. SUCCESS APPROACH
✓ help students
make good choices to change negative behavior & improve conditions