MAJORSHIP
Area: ENGLISH
Focus: Remedial
Instruction in English
LET Competencies:
·
Develop
the students’ ability to organize, design, implement, and evaluate remedial
English program in any of the four macro skills.
The
review material consists of the following:
I.
The
Remedial Classroom: Organization and Management
A.
Organization
1.
Curriculum
2.
Instruction
3.
Assessment
B.
Management
Components of Remediation
II.
Remedial
Instruction in READING
A.
Correcting
Perceptual and Decoding Deficits in Word Recognition
B.
Definition
of Terms
C.
Correcting
Sight-Word Knowledge Deficit
D.
Correcting
Basic Sight Vocabulary Deficit
E.
Correcting
Knowledge on Sound-Symbol Correspondence
F.
Remediation
through Phonemic Awareness
G.
Remedial
Vocabulary Instruction
III. Remedial Instruction in
LISTENING
A.
Factors
Affecting Students’ Listening Comprehension
B.
Internal
Factors
C.
External
Factors
D.
How
to Improve Students’ Listening Comprehension
IV. Remedial Instruction in SPEAKING
A.
What
makes speaking difficult
B.
Teaching
Pronunciation
C.
The
Use of Accuracy-based Activities
D.
Talking
to Second Language Learners in the beginning level
V.
Remedial
Instruction in WRITING
A.
Areas
of Difficulty for Students with Writing Problems
B.
Qualities
of Strong Writing Instruction
C.
Adaptations
for Struggling Writers
D.
Teaching
Handwriting
E.
Teaching
Spelling
I. The Remedial Classroom: Organization and Management
A remedial program primarily
helps students address language skills deficits by helping them acquire
self-confidence to face their own weakness and overcome these through the
acquisition of self-help strategies. A thorough assessment must be conducted
before organizing a remedial program, while consistent monitoring is imperative
in managing the program.
Below are general instructional
guidelines that should be considered (Strickland, 1998 cited in Gunning, 2003
and in Vacca, Vacca, and Gove, 1991):
ü Instruction is
systematic when it is planned, deliberate in application, and proceeds in an
orderly manner. This does not mean a rigid progression of one-size-fits-all
teaching.
ü Intensive instruction
on any particular skill or strategy should be based on need. Thus, intensity
will vary both with individuals and groups.
ü There is no substitute
for ongoing documentation and monitoring of learning to determine the order in
which skills should be addressed and the level of intensity required to help a
child or group of children succeed in a particular area.
ü To track specific goals
and objectives within an integrated language-arts framework, teachers must know
the instructional objectives their curriculum requires at the grade or year
level they teach.
A.
Organization
In organizing a remedial program, one
must consider the following factors:
1. CURRICULUM
a.
Base goals and standards for language learning on
theory and research.
b.Relate teacher beliefs and knowledge about instruction to research.
c.
Organize the curriculum framework so that it is
usable
d.Select materials that facilitate accomplishment of school goals.
2. INSTRUCTION
a.
The program must identify instructional strategies
and activities for learners.
b.
Instruction must be based upon what we know about the
effective teaching of language skills.
c.
Those involved in designing or selecting
instructional activities need to consider the variables that contribute to
success in language learning, given its interactive and constructive nature.
d.
Time must be provided in the classroom for practice.
e.
Composing should be an integral part of the program.
f.
Students should be given opportunities to become
independent and to self-monitor their progress.
g.
The climate in a school must be conducive to the
development of students.
h.
The school must develop an organizational structure
that meets individual needs of students.
i.
The program must provide for coordination among all language
programs offered in the school.
3. ASSESSMENT
a. Use assessment to guide instruction.
b. Develop scoring guides and rubrics.
c. Seek alignment among
various layers of assessment.
B.
Management
School-based remedial sessions tend
to involve 3 to 10 learners, and typically last between 30 to 50 minutes,
depending on whether they are in the elementary or secondary level. A plan to
maximize the utilization of that time should be a high priority. To ensure that
the program is effective, one must consider the six components of an ideal remedial program (Manzo &
Manzo, 1993). These principles may also be applicable in remediation for other
skills aside from reading.
1.
The orientation component. The
orientation component provides continuity and focus to the remedial session. It
may be an engaging question or statement related to local or national news, or
even school life. It must focus on structured routines, materials, equipment,
venue, people involved, and the objective of the program.
2.
Direct Instruction Component. This is
the instructional heart of the remedial session. It should never be traded
away, even for one period, without some compelling reason.
3.
Reinforcement and Extension Component. This
period of time ideally should build on the direct instructional period and be
spent in empowered reading, writing, and discussion of what was read. Writing
activities may vary from simply listing key words to summarizing and reacting.
4.
Schema-Enhancement Component. This unit of time should be spent in building a knowledge base for
further reading and independent thinking. It is an ideal time to teach study
skills such as outlining, note taking, and memory training. Ideally, it should
flow or precede Component 3.
5.
Personal-Emotional Growth Development. There is little learning or
consequence that can occur without the learner involvement and anticipation of
personal progress.
6.
Cognitive Development Component. This
component should contain an attempt to enhance basic thinking operation such
as: inference, abstract verbal reasoning,
analogical reasoning, constructive-critical/ creative reading, convergent and
divergent analysis, problem-solving, and metacognition.
II.
Remedial Instruction in
READING
A. Correcting Perceptual and Decoding Deficits in Word
Recognition
We
can identify the student who has insufficient competence in the visual analysis
of words in two ways. First, the student, when pronouncing words verbally,
selects inappropriate elements to sound out and often he/she tries again and
again to use the same analysis even when it does not work. The second way can
be done when the teacher shows him/her the word covering up parts of it, if the
student is able to recognize it, then at least one of his/her problems in word
recognition is faulty visual analysis (Ekwall & Shanker, 1988).
B. Definition of Terms
1.
Alphabetic Knowledge: understanding
that letters represent sound so that words may be read by saying the sounds
represented by the letters, and words may be spelled by writing the letters
that represent the sounds in a word.
2.
Sight-Word Knowledge: all words any one reader can recognize
instantly (with automaticity) not necessarily with meaning.
3.
Basic Sight Words: a designated list of words, usually of
high utility.
4.
Knowledge on Sound-Symbol Correspondence: (a.k.a. graphophonic
knowledge) the readers’ ability to use phonics, phonemic, and structural analysis
knowledge.
C. Correcting Sight-Word Knowledge Deficit
1.
Write
a sentence on the chalkboard with the new word used in context. Underline the
word.
2.
Let
students read the sentence and attempt to say the new word using context clues
along with other word-attack skills. If you are introducing a new story, it is
especially important that you do not tell them each new word in advance, as
this deprives them of the opportunity to apply word-attack skills themselves.
3.
Discuss
the meaning of the word or how it is used in talking and writing. Try to tie to
something in their experience. If possible, illustrate the word with a picture
or a concrete object.
4.
Write
the word as students watch. Ask them to look for certain configuration clues
such as double letters, extenders, and descenders. Also ask them to look for
any well-known phonograms or word families, e.g. ill, ant, ake, but do
not call attention to little words in longer words.
5.
Ask
students to write the word themselves and to be sure have them say the word
while they write it.
6.
Have
students make up and write sentences in which the word is used in context. Have
them read these sentences to each other and discuss them.
D. Correcting Basic Sight Vocabulary Deficit
1.
Have
the students trace the word; write it on paper, or use chalk or magic slates.
2.
Have
the students repeat the word each time it is written.
3.
Have
the students write the word without looking at the flash card; then compare the
two.
4.
Create
“study buddies.” Match learners in the classroom with fellow students who have
mastered the words. Take time to teach the “tutors” how to reinforce new words.
Provide a big reward to both tutor and learner once the learner has attained
the goal.
5.
Provide
reinforcement games for students to use on their own or with their study buddies.
Games may be open-ended game boards or developed by levels according to the
sublists.
6.
Provide
charts, graphs, and other devices for students to display their progress. These
serve as excellent motivators, especially since students are competing with
themselves rather than each other.
7.
Use
your imagination. Have students dramatize phrases, build a sight-word “cave,”
practice words while lining up, read sight-word “plays,” etc.
E. Correcting Knowledge on Sound-Symbol Correspondence
Vowel Rules or Principles
and Accent Generalizations
1.
In
words containing a single vowel letter at the end of the word, the vowel letter
usually
has the long vowel sound. (Note that this rule refers to
words and not just syllables.)
There
is a similar rule for single word letters at the end of syllables
2.
In
syllables containing a single vowel letter at the end of the syllable, the
vowel letter may have either the long or short vowel sound. Try the long sound
first. (Note that this has the same effect as rule 1.)
3.
A
single vowel in a syllable usually has the short vowel sound if it is not the
last letter or is not followed by r, w, or l. When explaining this to students it
is often helpful to indicate that a single vowel in a closed syllable is
usually short. Students should be taught that a closed syllable is one in which
there is a consonant on the right-hand side. They will also need to know, as
indicated above, the r, w, and l control rules.
4.
Vowels
followed by r usually have a sound
that is neither long nor short
5.
A
y at the beginning of a word has the
“y” consonant sound; y at the end of
a single-syllable word, when preceded by a consonant, usually has the long I sound; and y at the end of a multisyllable word, when preceded by a consonant,
usually has the long e sound. (Some
people hear it as short i.)
6.
In
words ending with vowel-consonant-silent e
the e is silent and the first vowel
may be either long or short. Try the
long sound first. In teaching this rule, stress that the student should be
flexible; i.e. try the short vowel sound if the long one does not form a word
in his or her speaking-listening vocabulary. It has been demonstrated that
students who are taught to be flexible in attacking words when applying rules
such as this become more adept at using word-attack skills than those who are
not taught this flexibility.
7.
When
aj, ay, ea, ee, and oa are found together, the first vowel
is usually long and the second is usually silent.
8.
The
vowel pair ow may have either the
sound heard in cow or the sound heard
in crow.
9.
When
au, aw, ou, oi, and oy are found together, they usually
blend to form a diphthong.
10.
The
oo sound is either long as in moon or short as in book.
11.
If
a is the only vowel in a syllable and
is followed by l or w, then the a is usually neither long nor short.
NOTE: Accent has less importance for a corrective reader
than the vowel rules. This is true partially because a student who properly
attacks a new word in his or her speaking-listening vocabulary but not sight
vocabulary is likely to get the right accent without any knowledge of accent
generalizations.
Also,
teach students the use of affixes so they will have better understanding of
contractions, inflectional and derivational endings for change tense, number
form and function. These will lead to students’ sufficient use of structural
analysis strategy.
Syllabication
Principles
1.
When
two consonants stand between two vowels, the word is usually divided between
the consonants, e.g., dag-ger and cir-cus. In some of the newer materials,
materials are divided after the double consonant, e.g., dagg-er. It should be remembered that in reading we are
usually teaching syllabication as a means of word attack. Therefore, we should
also accept a division after double consonants as correct even though the
dictionary would not show it that way.
2.
When
one consonant stands between two vowels, try dividing first so that the
consonant goes with the second vowels, e,g., pa-per and motor, Students should
be taught that flexibility is required in using this rule; if this does not
give a word in the student’s speaking-listening vocabulary, then the student
should divide it so that the consonant goes with the first vowel, as in riv-er
and lev-er.
3.
When
a word ends in a consonant and le,
the consonant usually begins the last syllable, e.g., ta-ble and hum-ble.
4.
Compound
words are usually divided between word parts and between syllables in this
parts, e.g., hen-house and po-lice-man.
5.
Prefixes
and suffixes usually form separate syllables.
F.
Remediation through Phonemic Awareness
The
following are Critical Phonemic Awareness skills students should learn
1.
Sound Isolation. Example: The first sound in sun is /ssss/.
Example Instruction: In sound isolation use
conspicuous strategies.
a.
Show students how to do all the
steps in the task before asking children to do the task.
Example: (Put down 2 pictures that begin with different
sounds and say the names of the pictures.) "My turn to say the first sound
in man,
/mmm/. Mmman
begins with /mmm/. Everyone, say the first sound in man, /mmm/."
Non-example: "Who can tell me the first sounds in
these pictures?"
b.
Use consistent and brief wording.
Example: "The first sound in Mmman is /mmm/.
Everyone say the first sound in man, /mmm/."
Non-example: "Man starts with the same sound as the first sounds in mountain, mop,
and Miranda.
Does anyone know other words that begin with the same sound as man?"
c.
Correct errors by telling the
answer and asking students to repeat the correct answer. Example: "The first sound in Man is /mmm/.
Say the first sound in mmman with me, /mmm/. /Mmmm/."
Non-example: Asking the question again or asking more
questions. "Look at the picture again. What is the first sound?"
2.
Blending (Example: /sss/ - / uuu/ - /nnn/ is sun). In blending instruction,
use scaffold task difficulty.
a.
When students are first learning
to blend, use examples with continuous sounds, because the sounds can be
stretched and held.
Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a
broken way. When he says /mmm/ - /ooo/ - /mmm/ he means mom."
Non-example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk
in a broken way. When he says /b/ - /e/ - /d/ he means bed."
b.
When students are first learning
the task, use short words in teaching and practice examples. Use pictures when
possible.
Example: Put down 3 pictures of CVC words and say: "My
lion puppet wants one of these pictures. Listen to hear which picture he wants,
/sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/. Which picture?"
Non-example: ".../p/ - /e/ - /n/ - /c/ - /i/ - /l/.
Which picture?" (This is a more advanced model that should be used later.)
c.
When students are first learning
the task, use materials that reduce memory load and to represent sounds.
Example: Use pictures to help them remember the words and to
focus their attention. Use a 3-square strip or blocks to represent sounds in a
word.
Non-example:
Provide only verbal activities.
d.
As students become successful
during initial learning, remove scaffolds by using progressively more difficult
examples. As students become successful with more difficult examples, use fewer
scaffolds, such as pictures.
Example: Move from syllable or onset-rime blending to
blending with all sounds in a word (phoneme blending). Remove scaffolds, such
as pictures. "Listen, /s/ - /t/ -
/o/ - /p/. Which picture?" "Listen, /s/ - /t/ - /o/ - /p/. What
word?"
Non-example: Provide instruction and practice at only
the easiest levels with all the scaffolds.
3.
Segmenting (Example: The sounds in sun
are /sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/) In phoneme
segmentation instruction, strategically integrate familiar and new information.
a.
Recycle instructional and
practice examples used for blending. Blending and segmenting are sides of the
same coin. The only difference is whether students hear or produce a segmented
word. Note: A segmenting response is more difficult for children to reproduce
than a blending response.
Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to say the
sounds in words. The sounds in mom are /mmm/ - /ooo/ - /mmm/. Say the sounds in mom with us.
"
b.
Concurrently teach letter-sound
correspondences for the sounds students will be segmenting in words.
Example: Letter sound /s/ and words sun and sit. Put down
letter cards for familiar letter-sounds. Then, have them place pictures by the
letter that begins with the same sound as the picture.
Non-example: Use letter-sounds that have not been taught
when teaching first sound in pictures for phoneme isolation activities.
c.
Make the connections between
sounds in words and sounds of letters.
Example: After students can segment the first sound, have
them use letter tiles to represent the sounds.
Non-example: Letters in mastered phonologic activities
are not used. Explicit connections between alphabetic and phonologic activities
are not made.
d.
Use phonologic skills to teach
more advanced reading skills, such as blending letter-sounds to read words.
Example: (Give children a 3-square strip and the letter tiles
for s, u, n.) Have them do familiar tasks and blending to teach stretched
blending with letters.
G. 
Remedial
Vocabulary Instruction
Remedial
Vocabulary Instruction
Vocabulary
is initially acquired in four ways:
- Incidentally, through reading and
conversation
- Through direct instruction, as when
a teacher or auto-instructional program is used intentionally build
vocabulary power
- Through self-instruction, as when
words are looked up in a dictionary or their meaning are sought from
others in a conscious manner.
- Through mental manipulation while
thinking, speaking ,and writing
1. Considerations in remedial vocabulary instruction
Connect
vocabulary instruction to the natural processes of word learning. The
literature on vocabulary acquisition tends to divide the teaching of vocabulary
into five phases. These are:
a.
Disposition – opening the student’s mind and will to engage new words.
b.
Integration – establishing ties
between the meaning of a new word and the student’s existing knowledge.
c.
Repetition – provisions for practice distributed over time, as well as
opportunities for frequent encounters with the word in similar and differing
contexts.
d.
Interaction and
meaningful use – social situations
conducive to using new words in interactions with others and, thus, mentally
referencing new words in listening, reading, writing, and speaking.
e.
Self-instruction – maintaining an awareness of new words outside the
classroom.
2. Concept-Based Approach to Vocabulary Building
a.
Identify
the relevant and irrelevant features of the concept in question.
b.
Provide
examples of the concept.
c.
Provide
examples of irrelevant but loosely related concepts with which it might be
compared.
d.
Relate
the concept by some possible smaller or subordinating concepts.
e.
Relate
or categorize the concept by some possible larger or superordinating concepts.
f.
Relate
or categorize the concept alongside equal or coordinating terms.
3. Subjective Approach to Vocabulary (SAV)
a.
Identify
two to four words to be taught or pre-taught if SAV is used as a pre-reading
activity. If a word list is used, be sure to include as many words as possible
that impart concepts and feelings that you would wish students to learn.
b.
The
teacher tells the student the full meaning of a word, much as it might be found
in a dictionary. It is recorded in a Word Study Journal as the “objective” or
dictionary meaning.
c.
The
teacher asks the student, “What does this word remind you of?” or “What do you
picture or think of when you hear this word?” Explain that discussion of a
personal association with a word can be very helpful in remembering and
clarifying its meaning.
d.
The
teacher talks to the student through this personal search for meaning by asking
further clarifying questions, and in group situations by pointing out those
images suggested that seem most vivid. The teacher may add his or her own
images. Students are then directed to write some “subjective” or personal
associations for the new word under the previously written dictionary
definition in their journals. Drawings can be added.
e.
Silent
reading follows next when SAV is used as pre-reading vocabulary development.
When it is being used for general vocabulary development, students are given 5
to 10 minutes to study and rehearse the new and previously recorded words.
f.
The
teacher let the student close the Word Study Journal and asks him/her the
meanings of the words studied that day and a few others from previous days.
This step can be tied to seat exercises in conventional workbooks such as
crossword puzzles, category games, etc. This manipulation and reinforcement
step can be made easier by selecting the words to be taught from the exercise
material.
4. Motor Imaging
It
appears that even the highest forms of vocabulary and concept learning have
psychomotor foundations, or equivalents. Hence, motor movements associated with
certain stimuli can become interiorized as a “symbolic meaning” (Piaget, 1963
in Manzo and Manzo1993). There are three considerable advantages to knowing
this where remediation is concerned:
a.
First,
since physical-sensory or proprioceptive learning can be interiorized, they also
can be self-stimulating, and as such, they are easier to rehearse and recall
with the slightest mental reminder, as well as from external stimulation.
b.
Second,
proprioceptive learning is so basic to human learning that it is common to all
learners, fast and slow, and hence, ideal for heterogeneously grouped classes.
c.
Third,
the act of identifying and acting out a word becomes a life experience in
itself with the word – a value that Frederick Duffellmeyer (1980) in Manzo and
Manzo (1993) demonstrated when he successfully taught youngsters words via the
“experiential” approach.
PROCEDURE
1.
Take
a difficult word from the text, write it on the chalkboard, pronounce it, and
tell what it means.
2.
Ask
students to imagine a simple pantomime for the word meaning (“How could you
show someone what this word means with just your hands or a gesture?”)
3.
Tell
students that when you give a signal, they will do their gesture pantomimes
simultaneously.
4.
Select
the most common pantomime observed. Demonstrate it all to the students, saying
the word while doing the pantomime.
5.
Repeat
each new word, this time directing the class to do the pantomime while saying a
brief meaning or simple synonym.
6.
Let
the students encounter the word in the assigned reading material.
7.
Try
to use the pantomime casually whenever the word is used for a short time
thereafter.
III. Remedial Instruction in LISTENING
A.
Factors Affecting Students’ Listening Comprehension
1.
Internal factors – refer
to the learner characteristics, language proficiency, memory, age, gender, background
knowledge as well as aptitude, motivation, and
psychological and physiological factors
2.
External factors - are mainly
related to the type of language input and tasks and the context in which
listening occurs
B.
Internal Factors
1. Problems in language proficiency (cover problems on phonetics and phonology
like phonetic discrimination, and phonetic varieties; problems in grammar; and
lexicological problems)
2. Poor background knowledge
3. Lack of motivation to listen
4. Psychological factors
5. Other internal factors (age, attention span, memory span, reaction and
sensitivity)
C.
External Factors
1. Speed of delivery and different accents of the
speakers
2. The content and task of listening materials
3. Context - refers to the spatial-temporal
location of the utterance, i.e. on the particular time and particular place at
which the speaker makes an utterance and the particular time and place at which
the listener hears or reads the utterance.
4. Co-text - another major factor influencing
the interpretation of meaning. It refers to the linguistic context or the
textual environment provided by the discourse or text in which a particular
utterance occurs. Co-text constrains the way in which we interpret the
response. Here we can infer that the person
is not going to a picnic by judging from the co-text.
A: Are
you coming going to Baguio with us?
B: I have a paper to finish by Monday.
B: I have a paper to finish by Monday.
D.
How
to Improve Students’ Listening Comprehension
1.
Teach pronunciation, stress, and intonation of the
critical sounds of English
2.
Practice
sound discrimination, liasions, and incomplete plosives
3.
Recognize
stressed and unstressed words
4.
Enrich
vocabulary
5.
Teach grammar
6.
Practice inferring information
not directly stated
7.
Improve skills in predicting
8.
Teach note-taking skills
IV. Remedial Instruction in SPEAKING
A.
What makes speaking difficult (Brown, 2001)
1. Clustering
2. Redundancy
3. Reduced forms
4. Performance variables
5. Colloquial language
6. Rate of delivery
7. Stress, rhythm, and intonation
8. Interaction
B.
Teaching Pronunciation
Below are
techniques and practice,materials (as cited in Murcia, Brinton, and Goodwin,
1996) in teaching pronunciation which have been used traditionally and
continues to be utilized in speaking classes.
1. Listen and imitate. Learners listen to a
model provided by the teacher and then repeat or imitate it.
2. Phonetic training. Articulatory
descriptions, articulatory diagrams, and a phonetic alphabet are used.
3. Minimal Pair drills. These provide practice
on problematic sounds in the target language through listening discrimination
and spoken practice. Drills begin with word-level then move to sentence-level.
4. Contextualized minimal pairs. The teacher
established the setting or context then key vocabulary is presented. Students
provide meaningful response to sentence stem.
5. Visual aids. These materials are used to cue
production of focus sounds.
6. Tongue twisters
7. Developmental approximation drills.
Second language speakers take after the steps that English-speaking children
follow in acquiring certain sounds.
8. Practice of vowel shifts and stress shifts related by affixation
Vowel shift: mime (long i) mimic
(short i)
Sentence context: Street mimes often mimic the
gestures of passersby.
Stress shift: PHOtograph phoTOGraphy
Sentence
context: I can tell from
these photographs that you are very
good at
photography.
9. Reading aloud/recitation. Passages and scripts are
used for students to practice and then read aloud focusing on stress, timing,
and intonation.
10. Recording of learners’ production. Playback
allows for giving of feedback and self-evaluation.
C.
The Use of Accuracy-based Activities
Accuracy precedes
fluency. Form-focused activities prepare students for communicative tasks.
These activities have a high degree of control and focuses on specific language
components. To strike a balance, Hedge (2000) describes how to make
accuracy-based activities meaningful.
1. Contextualized practice. This aims to establish
the link between form and function. The activity should highlight the situation
where the form is commonly used.
2. Personalizing language. Personalized practice encourages
learners to express their ideas, feelings, and opinions. These activities help
learners to use language in interpersonal interactions. A variety of gambits or
useful expressions should be provided.
3. Building awareness of the social use of language.
This involves understanding social conventions in interaction. Communication
strategies are directly taught and practiced through contextualized activities.
4. Building confidence. The key is to create a
positive climate in classroom where learners are encouraged to take risks and
engage in activities.
D.
Talking to Second Language Learners in the beginning level
Cary (1997)
suggests that teachers need to make speech modifications as a form of
instructional support when teaching with second language learners.
1. Speak at standard speed. This means providing
more and slightly longer pauses to give students more time to make sense of the
utterances.
2. Use more gestures, movement, and facial expressions. These provide emphasis on words and give learners extra clues as they
search for meaning.
3. Be careful with fused forms. Language compressions or
reduces forms can be difficult for learners. Use these forms without overusing
or eliminating them altogether.
4. Use shorter, simpler, sentences.
5. Use specific names instead of pronouns.
V. Remedial Instruction in WRITING
A.
Areas of Difficulty for Students with
Writing Problems (Troia, 2002; Troia & Graham, 2003)
1. Knowledge Difficulties
Students with writing problems
show:
a. Less awareness of what constitutes good writing and
how to produce it;
b. Restricted knowledge about genre-specific text
structures (e.g., setting or plot elements in a narrative);
c. Poor declarative, procedural, and conditional
strategy knowledge (e.g., knowing that one should set goals for writing, how to
set specific goals, and when it is most beneficial to alter those goals);
d. Limited vocabulary;
e. Underdeveloped knowledge of word and sentence
structure (i.e., phonology, morphology, and syntax);
f. Impoverished, fragmented, and poorly organized topic
knowledge;
g. Difficulty accessing existing topic knowledge; and
h. Insensitivity to audience needs and perspectives,
and to the functions their writing is intended to serve.
2. Skill Difficulties
Students with writing
problems:
a.
Often do not plan before
or during writing;
b.
Exhibit poor text
transcription (e.g., spelling, handwriting, and punctuation);
c.
Focus revision efforts (if
they revise at all) on superficial aspects of writing (e.g., handwriting,
spelling, and grammar);
d.
Do not analyze or reflect
on writing;
e.
Have limited ability to
self regulate thoughts, feelings, and actions throughout the writing process;
f.
Show poor attention and
concentration; and
g.
Have visual motor
integration weaknesses and fine motor difficulties.
3. Motivation Difficulties
Students with writing problems:
a.
Often do not develop
writing goals and subgoals or flexibly alter them to meet audience, task, and
personal demands;
b.
Fail to balance
performance goals, which relate to documenting performance and achieving
success, and mastery goals, which relate to acquiring competence;
c.
Exhibit maladaptive
attributions by attributing academic success to external and uncontrollable
factors such as task ease or teacher assistance, but academic failure to
internal yet uncontrollable factors such as limited aptitude;
d.
Have negative self
efficacy (competency) beliefs;
e.
Lack persistence; and
f.
Feel helpless and poorly
motivated due to repeated failure.
B.
Qualities of Strong Writing Instruction
In
order for teachers to support all students' writing ability development, certain
qualities of the writing classroom must be present. Four core components of
effective writing instruction constitute the foundation of any good writing
program:
- Students should have meaningful writing experiences and be assigned
authentic writing tasks that promote personal and collective
expression, reflection, inquiry, discovery, and social change.
- Routines should permit students to become comfortable with the
writing process and move through the process over a sustained period
of time at their own rate.
- Lessons should be designed to help students master craft elements
(e.g., text structure, character development), writing skills
(e.g., spelling, punctuation), and process strategies (e.g.,
planning and revising tactics).
- A common language for shared expectations and feedback regarding writing quality might include the use of
traits (e.g., organization, ideas, sentence fluency, word choice,
voice, and conventions).
C.
Adaptations for Struggling Writers
1. Accommodations in the
Learning Environment
a.
Increase
instructional time for writing.
b.
Provide
quiet and comfortable spaces for students to work.
c.
Provide
unimpeded access to writing tools.
d.
Let
students identify and select meaningful reinforcements for achieving writing
goals (e.g., a reinforcement menu).
e.
Consult
with an occupational therapist to identify specialized adaptations (e.g., chair
and desk height).
2. Accommodations in
Instructional Materials
a. Simplify
language of writing prompts.
b. Highlight
(e.g., color code) key words and phrases.
c. Transition
from simple to more elaborate graphic organizers and procedural checklists.
d. Post
strategies, graphic organizers, and checklists in classroom and give students
personal copies.
e. Develop
individualized spelling lists.
f. Have
students keep a personal dictionary of “demon” words and frequently used
spelling vocabulary.
g. Provide
paper positioning marks on students’ desks.
h. Provide
pencil grips for students.
i. Provide
raised- or colored-lined paper.
j. Provide
students with personal copies of alphabet strips.
3. Accommodations in
Teaching Strategies
a. Devote
more instructional time to writing mechanics.
b. Provide
physical assistance during handwriting practice.
c. Re-teach
writing skills and strategies.
d. Expect
and support mastery learning of skills and strategies (e.g., memorization of
strategy steps).
e. Use
cross-age peer tutors to reinforce skills and strategies.
f. Assign
homework designed to reinforce writing instruction.
g. Help
students set specific and challenging yet attainable goals for the writing
process (e.g., completing a planning sheet before beginning to draft) and
written products (e.g., a quantity goal of including 10 descriptive words in a
story, which is perhaps linked to a quality goal of improving word choice by
two points on an analytic quality scale).
h. Help students
develop self-instructions (e.g., “I can handle this if I go slow.”) and
self-questions (e.g., “Am I following my plan?”) that focus on positive
attributions for success and task progress.
i. Teach
students to evaluate and adjust their writing behaviors and writing strategy
use to improve their writing productivity and performance.
j. Promote
maintenance and generalization of writing strategies by doing the following:
·
Modeling
and discussing how strategies may be used in multiple contexts;
·
Relating
writing performance to strategy use;
·
Having
students teach others how to use strategies;
·
Having
students keep a strategy notebook which they can consult at any time;
·
Ensuring
all staff and caregivers are familiar with and prompt the use of the
strategies; and
·
Reviewing
strategies often.
4. Modifications to Task
Demands
a. Increase
amount of time allotted for completing written assignments.
b. Decrease
the length and/or complexity of written assignments.
c. Have
students complete text frames (i.e., partially finished texts).
d. Reduce or
eliminate copying demands (e.g., teach students abbreviations for note taking,
supply worksheets with math problems from textbook).
e. Allow
students to use temporary/invented spelling.
f. Pre-teach
spelling vocabulary for assignments.
g. Evaluate
spelling using correct letter sequences (e.g., hopping has 8 possible correct
letter sequences) rather than number of words spelled correctly to measure and
reward incremental progress attributable to partial correct spelling.
h. Permit
students to dictate written work to a scribe.
i. If
students have adequately developed keyboarding skills, permit them to write
papers with a word processor.
j. Permit
students to use outlining and semantic mapping software to facilitate planning.
k. Permit
students to use voice recognition technology to facilitate text transcription.
l. Permit
students to use integrated spell checker and/or word prediction software to
facilitate correct spelling.
m. Permit
students to use speech synthesis technology to facilitate revising and editing.
n. Selectively
weight grading for content, organization, style, and conventions.
o. Grade
assignments based on the amount of improvement rather than absolute
performance.
p. Assign
letter grades for body of work collected over time (i.e., portfolio assessment)
rather than for each paper.
q. Provide
feedback on content, organization, style, and conventions for some rather than
all assignments (which may reduce students’ anxiety about writing).
r. Provide
feedback on targeted aspects of writing rather than all aspects to avoid
overwhelming students.
5. Modifications to Learning
Tasks
a. Permit
students to dramatize or orally present a written assignment, either in lieu of
writing or in preparation for writing.
b. Assign
students suitable roles (e.g., brainstorm manager) for the creation of a
group-generated paper.
D.
Teaching Handwriting
The following are
research-based suggestions for teaching handwriting.
1. Curriculum Considerations
a.
The
initial use of one type of script (e.g., manuscript versus cursive or different
versions of manuscript) does not appear to affect handwriting performance.
b.
Special
emphasis is placed on difficult-to-form letters and those that are frequently
reversed.
c.
Lowercase
letters are introduced before upper-case letters, unless they are formed using
similar strokes (e.g., C, c).
d.
Letters
that share common strokes are grouped together (e.g., o, c, d, a).
e.
The
introduction of easily confused letters (e.g., b, d, p, q) is staggered.
f.
The
formation of individual upper- and lowercase letters and, for cursive,
difficult letter transitions (e.g., roam) are modeled.
g.
Visual
cues, such as numbered dots and arrows, and verbal descriptions are used to
guide letter formation.
h.
Activities
to reinforce letter recognition and naming are combined with handwriting
practice.
i.
Students
practice using a comfortable and efficient tripod pencil grasp.
j.
Students
are shown and expected to use appropriate posture and paper positioning for
their handedness.
k.
Handwriting
fluency is developed through frequent writing and speed trials, with an
emphasis on maintaining legibility.
l.
Opportunities
are provided for distributed practice and judicious review of individual
letters and letter sequences.
m.
Students
are permitted to develop their own handwriting style and to choose which script
(manuscript, cursive, or even a blend) they prefer to use after mastering
handwriting (manuscript tends to be more legible than cursive and can be
written just as quickly if given equal emphasis).
n.
Students
are prompted to identify when a high degree of legibility is and is not
necessary.
2. Weekly Routines
a.
In
the primary grades, 60–75 minutes per week is allocated for handwriting
instruction.
b.
Students
are encouraged to compare letters to discover patterns and to highlight their
similarities and differences.
c.
Students
are given opportunities to reinforce target letters by tracing them (a dashed
or faded model), copying them, and writing them from memory.
d.
Students’
handwriting is monitored and immediately reinforced for correct letter
formation, spacing, alignment, size, slant, and line quality.
e.
Students
are asked to self-evaluate their handwriting and to set goals for improving
specific aspects of their handwriting each day.
f.
Students
are encouraged to correct poorly formed letters and to rewrite illegible work.
E.
Teaching Spelling
1.
Curriculum Considerations
a.
Spelling
vocabulary includes words drawn from children’s reading materials, children’s
writing, self-selected words, high-frequency word lists 1,2,
and pattern words.
b.
Students
are typically taught phonemic awareness and phoneme-grapheme associations
(reserving the least consistent mappings, such as consonants /k/ and /z/ and
long vowels, for last) in kindergarten and first grade. Common spelling
patterns (e.g., phonograms or rime families 3,4,5)
are taught in first and second grades. Morphological structures (i.e., roots
and affixes 3,4,5,6) and helpful spelling rules
(e.g., add es to make words ending in s, z, x, ch, or sh plural) are taught in
second grade and beyond.
c.
Students
are taught systematic and effective strategies for studying new spelling words
(e.g., mnemonic spelling links, multi-sensory strategies).
d.
Previously
taught spelling words are periodically reviewed to promote retention.
e.
Correct
use of spelling vocabulary in students’ written work is monitored and
reinforced.
f.
Students
are taught and encouraged to use dictionaries, spell checkers, and other
resources to determine the spelling of unknown words
g.
Spelling
“demons” and other difficult words are posted on wall charts.
2. Weekly Routines
a.
A
minimum of 60–75 minutes per week is allocated for spelling instruction.
b.
Students
take a Monday pretest to determine which words they need to study during
subsequent activities and to set spelling performance goals.
c.
After
studying new spelling words, students take a Friday posttest to determine which
words were mastered.
d.
Immediately
after taking a spelling test, students correct their misspellings.
e.
The
teacher conducts word sorts and guided spelling activities to explicitly teach
spelling patterns and rules at the beginning of the week.
f.
Daily
opportunities are provided for cumulative study and testing of new spelling
words (e.g., through computer-assisted instruction).
g.
Students
work together each day to learn new spelling words.
h.
While
studying, students monitor their on-task behavior or the number of times they
correctly spell a target word, to promote active learning.