MAJORSHIP
Area: ENGLISH
Focus: Language and Literature Research
LET Competencies:
1.
demonstrate
knowledge of the approaches and concepts in language and literature research.
2.
identify
the appropriate research method/s, tools, and statistical treatment to apply in
a research-related situation.
A.
Definition
of Language and Literature Research
There
are a number of definitions of research. These definitions emphasize the
purposes of research, the methods and strategies used, the analysis of data,
and the ethics in conducting research.
Below are some of the definitions given by the research practitioners
themselves.
1.
It
is the utilization of various methods and strategies to gather truthful and
accurate information about problems and issues related to language and
literature study.
2.
It
is the carrying out scientific method or analysis; it entails the application
of formal, systematic, and intensive processes to yield significant information
or data about the research questions and/or objectives.
3.
It
is the systematic, objective, and literature-based analysis of scientifically recorded
data which may lead to the development of generalizations, principles, models, theories,
and prediction of events.
B.
General
Types of Research
The two general types of research are
quantitative research and the qualitative research. However, in recent
literature, the action research is already included in the list.
1.
Quantitative
Research – It is centered on the objective investigation of a population
represented by a set of samples. It uses numberical data to explain the
researcher’s observations of the samples’ behavior. It is usually done in a contrived setting. It
likewise uses and applies language and literature theories and related concepts
to identify the data to be gathered. Moreover, some statistical methods and
techniques are used to analyze and generalize data. The process used to
undertake quantitative research is deductive. The main purpose of this research
type is to test theories, predict outcomes, establish facts, and test
hypothesis or assumptions. It isolates variables and uses large samples. It collects data using tests and formal
instruments.
2.
Qualitative
Research –It assumes that social reality is continuously constructed in local
situations. It makes a holistic observation of the total context within which
social action occurs. It uses analytic induction to analyze data and it
discovers concepts and theories after data have been collected. The approach is inductive and the goal is to
describe multiple realities, develop deep understanding and captures everyday
life and human perspective.
3.
Action
Research - The action research is before classified under qualitative research
because it mainly used the qualitative methods and techniques. However, in the
current literature on research, action research is classified under the general
type which means it becomes co-equal with both quantitative and qualitative
research. The argument is that action
research may utilize both quantitative and qualitative research methods and
techniques.
C.
Parts
of a Research Report
The parts of a research report provide a systematic
presentation of the research questions and the answers to these questions. Regardless of the variations in the parts of
a research report, all research reports contain the research questions or
objectives, related theoretical and research literature, research findings and
their discussion. Below are the basic
contents of a research report:
1.
The
Problem and Its Setting- This section includes the introduction of the study, statement
of the problem, scope and delimitation, importance of the study, and the
definition of terms. It is also in this
part that the hypotheses and assumption of the study are stated.
2.
Review
of Literature and Studies – This section presents the theories, concepts and
studies related to the research topic.
3.
Research
Methodology – This section clears out the processes used to answer the research
questions. This section also states the
research methods and design, sampling, statistical treatment, procedures, and
other related concepts necessary for data gathering.
4.
Research
findings – This section presents the overview of the statistical procedures or
how statistical procedures are used for data analysis, description of results
for each hypothesis, question, objective or purpose.
5.
Discussion
– this section presents the interpretation and analysis of the results.
6.
Summary
and Recommendations – this section presents the implications of the study and future
research
D.
Sources
of Research Problems
The research problems can be gathered from
various sources, such as:
1.
Research
Literature –It provides the much needed information to determine what have
already been explored in relation to the topic that will be investigated.
2.
Theory-Based
Research – This contains the studies in which the existing theories on language
and literature were tested.
3.
Replicating
and Extending Previous Research – the purpose of this is to check findings of
breakthrough study, to determine the validity of research findings across
different populations, to identify the trends or change over time, to know
important findings using different methodology, and to develop more effective
or efficient intervention
4.
Observations
– this helps in determining an emerging or existing phenomenon that must be
investigated
5.
Experience
– this is another rich source of research topics because this provides the
motivation to the researcher to investigate or examine what he/she knows is
important in language or literature study.
E.
Characteristics
of a Good Research Topic
There are several factors to be considered in
undertaking a research. These factors
1.
The
topic is interesting. It will hold the
researcher’s interest through the entire research.
2.
The
topic is researchable. It can be
investigated through the collection and analysis of data and it is not stated
as a topic seeking to determine what should be done.
3.
The
topic is significant. It contributes in
some way to the improvement or understanding of education theory or practice.
4.
The
topic is manageable. If it fits the
researcher’s level or research skills, needed resources, and time restrictions.
F.
Variables
and Hypothesis
1.
Variables
– a quantitative expression of a construct that can vary in quantity or quality
in observed phenomenon. It stands for
variation within a class of objects. The
different types of variables are:
a.
Independent
variable – a variable that the researcher thinks occurred prior in time to, and
has an influence on another variable or on the dependent variable.
b.
Dependent
variable – a variable that is affected by or influenced by an independent
variable.
c.
Intervening
variable – a variable which cannot be controlled or measured directly that has
an important effect upon the outcome.
2.
Hypothesis
– this pertains to a researcher’s prediction of the tentative results and
findings of a study based on a theory or assumption of the variables measured
in the study. This likewise presents the relationship between variables. The
types of hypothesis are:
a.
Null
Hypothesis – a prediction that no relationship between two measured variables
will be found or that no difference between two groups on a measured variable
will be found.
b.
Non
directional hypothesis – simply states that a relationship or difference exists
between variables.
c.
Directional
hypothesis – presents the expected direction of the relationship or difference
3.
Characteristics
of a Good Hypothesis:
a.
It
is based on sound reasoning.
b.
It
provides a reasonable explanation for the predicted outcome.
c.
It
clearly states the expected relationship between defined variables.
d.
It
is testable within a reasonable time frame.
G.
Quantitative
Research Methods
1.
Descriptive
or survey research - studies phenomenon/issues and problems as they exist at one
point in time. It involves making careful descriptions of phenomenon in
language and literature. It is concerned with “what is.”
a.
Characteristics
of a descriptive or survey research
i)
information
is collected from a group of people in order to describe some aspects or
characteristics such as abilities, opinions, attitudes, beliefs, and/or
knowledge of the population of which that group is a part
ii)
information
is collected through asking questions; the answers to these questions by the
members of the group constitute the data of the study
iii)
information
is collected from a sample rather than from every member of the population
b.
Purposes
of descriptive research
i)
presents
description for purposes of policy formulation
ii)
helps
in improving existing conditions
c.
Types
of descriptive research
i)
Longitudinal
study – involves collecting data from a sample at different points in time in
order to study changes or continuity in the samples’ characteristics.
·
Trend
Studies – describe change by selecting a different sample at each data
collection point from a population that does not remain constant
·
Cohort
Studies – describe change by selecting a different sample at each
data-collection point from a population that remains constant
·
Panel
Studies – this involves selecting a sample at the outset of the study and then
at each subsequent data-collection point surveying the same sample is done
·
Cross-sectional
studies- the data are obtained at one point in time, but from groups of
different ages or at different stages of development
ii)
Cross-
sectional survey – collects information from a sample that has been drawn from
a predetermined population. The information is collected at just one point in
time, although the time it takes to collect all the data desired may take
anywhere from a day to a few weeks or more.
d.
Types
of Instruments in Descriptive or Survey Research
i)
Questionnaire - this is a type of instrument in which the
respondents are asked to express their views, opinions, or knowledge using a
scale.
Types of Questions – the nature of the questions, and the
way they are asked, are extremely important in the research survey:
1.
Closed-ended
questions are easy to use, score, and code for analysis on a computer. Since
all subjects respond to the same opinions; standardized data are provided.
2.
Open-ended
questions- allow for more individualized responses, but they are sometimes
difficult to interpret. They are also
often hard to score, since so many different kinds of responses are received.
Kinds
of Questionnaire
1.
Postal
questionnaires –this involves sending of ‘self-completion’ questionnaire
through the post. This involves a coverage of a large geographical area.
2.
E-questionnaire
– this involves sending of ‘self-completion’ questionnaire through email or
other electronic means. This also has a large geographical area coverage.
ii)
Interview - a measure that specifies the questions to
be asked of each research participant, the sequence in which they are to be
asked, and guidelines for what the interviewer is to say at the opening and
closing of the interview
Kind
of interview
1.
Face
to face interview – allows a direct interface between the research or data
gatherer and the respondent.
2.
Telephone
interview – uses the phone to gather data from the respondents. Other prefer a telephone interview because it
is cheaper and faster than the face-to-face interview.
ii)
Correlational
Research – a type of investigation that seeks to discover the direction and
magnitude of the relationship among variables through the use of correlational
statistics.
a.
Purposes
of Correlational research
1.
to
clarify our understanding of important phenomenon through the identification of
relationships among variables
2.
to
predict a score on either variable if a score on the other variable is known
b.
Scattergram
or scatter plot – is a pictorial representation of the correlation between two
variables. The scattergram tells the
type of correlation evident between the two variables.
i)
Perfect
correlation
ii)
Positive
correlation
iii)
Negative
correlation
iv)
Absence
of correlation
iii)
Causal-comparative
or ex post facto research – determines the cause, or reason for existing
differences in the behavior or status of groups
iv)
Experimental
Research- provides a systematic and logical method for answering the question
on what will happen if experiments are done in carefully controlled conditions.
In this study, the researchers manipulate certain stimuli, treatments or
environmental conditions and observe how the condition or behavior of the
subject is affected or changed.
a.
Types
of Experimental designs
i)
Pre-Experiment
– the least adequate of designs is characterized by: (1) lack of a control
group; (2) failure to provide for the equivalence of a control group Some examples of pre-experimental designs
are:
·
One-shot
case study design – a type of experimental design in which an experiment
treatment is administered and then a posttest is administered to measure the
effects of the treatment.
X 0
X= Treatment O = Observation
(Dependent
variable)
·
One-group,
pretest-posttest design - a type of
experiment in which all participants are exposed to the same conditions;
measurement of the dependent variable (pretest), implementation of the
experimental treatment, and another measurement of the dependent variable
(posttest)
O1 X O2
O1= pretest O2=
posttest
·
Static
–group comparison design – this design compares the status of a group that has
received an experimental treatment with one that has not. There is no provision for establishing the
equivalence of the experimental and control groups. In some books, this design
is classified under the quasi-experimental design.
X O
C O
ii)
Quasi-Experiment
– these designs provide control of when and to whom the measurement is applied,
but because random assignment to experiment and treatment groups has not been
applied, the equivalence of the groups is not assured. Some examples of
experimental designs are:
·
Time
series design – a type of experiment in which a particular behavior of an
individual or a group is measured at periodic intervals, and the experimental
treatment is administered one or more times between those intervals
e.g
O1O2O3O4O5O6O7O8
·
Pretest-posttest
nonequivalent–groups design – this design is often used in classroom
experiments when experimental and control groups are naturally assembled groups
as intact classes which maybe similar.
The difference between the mean score of the O1 and O2 scores and the
difference between the mean of the O3 and O4 are tested for statistical
significance.
e.g. O1 X O2 O1O2
= pretests
O3 C O4 O2O4 = posttests
iii)
True-Experimental
designs – in this design the subjects are randomly assigned to treatment
groups. Examples of these are:
·
Posttest-only
control-group design – a type of experiment that includes three phases: a)
random assignment of research participants to the experimental and control
groups; b) administration of the treatment to the experimental group and either
no treatment or an alternative treatment to the control group; and c)
administration of a measure of the dependent variable to both groups.
Treatment
group R X1 O
Control
Group R X2 O
·
Pretest-Posttest
Control Group Design- This differs from the posttest-only control group design
solely in the use of a pretest. Two groups of subjects are used, with both
groups being measured or observed twice.
Treatment
Group R O X1 O
Control Group R O X2 O
·
Solomon
four-group design – a type of experiment involving two treatment groups and two
control groups, so that the researcher can determine the effect of both the treatment
variable and the pretest on the dependent variable.
Treatment
Group R O X1 O
Control Group R O X2 O
Treatment
Group R X1 O
Control
Group R X2 O
b.
Tests
in an Experimental Research
i)
Pre-test
– a measure that is administered prior to an experimental treatment or other
intervention
ii)
Posttest
– a measure that is administered following an experiment or control treatment
or other intervention in order to determine the effects of the intervention
c.
Groupings
in an Experimental Research
i)
Control
Group - a group of research participants who receive no treatment or an
alternate treatment so that the effect of extraneous variables can be
determined.
ii)
Experimental
Group – a group of research participants who receive treatment
d.
Focus
of experimental research
· Controls. Experimental
research focuses on the ‘manipulation of circumstances.’
· Identification of
causal factors. It helps in identifying
which factor actually causes the observed outcome to occur.
· Observation and
measurement. It should be precise and detailed.
3.
Qualitative
Research Methods
i)
Action
Research – a type of applied research that is conducted primarily to improve
educational practices, including management of the classroom, classroom
practices and interaction, classroom instruction, among others.
a.
Steps
in action research cycle
i)
Initiation
– identifies a pedagogy-related problem
ii)
Preliminary
investigation – collects baseline data through observation and classroom
interaction
iii)
Hypothesis
– form hypothesis based on the data
iv)
Intervention
– devises strategies to solve the problem
v)
Evaluation
- evaluates the result of the intervention
vi)
Dissemination
– prevents findings in a forum
vii)
Follow
up- investigates alternative solution to the same problem
b.
Action
Research Data Collection Approaches
i)
Teacher
self- reflection tools- these are designed to be completed by teachers to
evaluate their performance in the areas identified on the self-reflection tool.
These tools usually are in the form of a checklist, rating scale, or
questionnaire.
ii)
Media
recording and analysis - this uses
media-like audio or video recording to record a sample of teacher performance
for subsequent analysis by the teacher, peer or both. Microteaching is one
example of media recording.
iii)
Student
feedback tools – this is similar to the self- reflection tool except that the
students, instead of the teacher, complete the forms. Teacher- made
questionnaire, minute surveys and journals are examples of sources of student
feedback.
iv)
Student
performance data – include all student products that can be used to help
teachers assess their own instructional effectiveness. Test results, essays, classroom projects, and
the like are examples of students’ performance data.
v)
External
or peer observation – involves having a peer or colleague observe, assess, or
provide suggestions about an aspect of the teacher’s practice such as
questioning behavior, lesson organization or feedback to students.
vi)
Journaling
– requires the teacher to maintain and reflect on a record of classroom events
or activities with the intent of recognizing recurring problems, wants,
successes, or needs.
vii)
Collegial
dialogue, experience sharing, and joint problem solving- all of these encourage
collaboration among teachers to discuss common problems, share procedures, and strategies,
and compare perceptions. Exposure to the ideas and practices of colleagues is a
potent strategy for teacher reflection and change.
ii)
Case
Study Research- This type of research is an in-depth study of cases which
include an individual, a group, and a community. This investigates the perspective of the
participants involved in the phenomenon or issue.
iii)
Historical
Research – the study of the past phenomenon for the purpose of gaining a better
understanding of present institutions, practices, trends, and issues.
a.
Purposes
of Historical Research
i)
to
make people aware of what has happened in the past so they may learn from past failure or success
ii)
to
learn how things were done in the past to see if they might be applicable to present day problems and
concerns
iii)
to
assist in prediction
iv)
to
test hypotheses concerning relationships or trends
b.
Types
of Sources
i)
Primary
Sources- this is a direct report of an event by an individual who actually
observed or participated in it.
ii)
Secondary
Sources – these are documents prepared by an individual who was not a direct
witness to an event, but who obtained his or her description of the event from
someone else.
c.
Categories
of Sources
i)
Documents
– these are written or printed materials that have been produced in some form
or another. Examples of these are annual reports, artwork, bills, books,
cartoons, circulars, records, diaries, diplomas, newspapers, among others. They
may be handwritten, printed, typewritten, drawn or sketched; published or
unpublished; intended for private or public consumption; original or copies.
Therefore, documents pertain to any kind of information that exists in some
type of written or printed form.
ii)
Numerical
records – these include test scores, attendance figures, consensus reports, budgets,
and the like.
iii)
Oral
statements – these include stories, myths, tales, legends, chants, songs and
other forms of oral expression that have been used by people down through the
ages to leave a record for future generations.
iv)
Relics
–These are objects whose physical or visual characteristics can provide some
information about the past. Examples include furniture, artwork, clothing,
buildings, monuments, or equipment.
iv)
Ethnographic
Research – In anthropology, an in-depth study of the features of life in a
given culture and the patterns in those features.
a.
Characteristics
of Ethnography Research
i)
Contextual
– the research is carried out in the context in which the subjects normally
live or work.
ii)
Unobtrusive
– the researcher avoids manipulating the phenomenon under investigation
iii)
Longitudinal
– the research is relatively long term
iv)
Collaborative
– the researcher carries out interpretative analyses of the data in cooperation
with other people, e.g. the natives in a community
v)
Organic-
there is interaction between questions/hypothesis and data
collection/interpretation
b.
Types
of Research Participants
i)
Participant–Observer
role – In quantitative research, the observer’s assumption of a meaningful
identity within the group being observed, but that does not involve engaging in
activities that are at the core of the group’s identity
ii)
Observer-Participant
role – In quantitative research, the observer’s maintenance of a posture of
detachment while collecting research data in a setting, but with causal
interaction with the individuals or groups being studied as necessary.
iii)
Complete
observer – the researcher observes the activities of a group without in any way
becoming a participant in those activities.
The subjects of the researcher’s observation may or may not realize that
they are being observed.
iv)
Complete
participant – the identity is not known to any of the individuals being
observed. The researcher interacts with
the group as naturally as possible.
c.
Types
of effects on the participants
i)
Hawthorne’s
Effect- An observed change in the participants’ behavior based on their
awareness of participating in an experiment, their knowledge of research
hypothesis or their response to receiving special attention
ii)
Halo
effect – the tendency for the observer’s early impressions of an individual
being observed to influence the observer’s ratings of all variables involving
the same individual
iii)
Observer
effect – any action or bias of an observer to record the occurrence of a
behavior that fits one of the categories in the observational schedule.
4.
Sampling
and Sampling Technique
i)
Sampling
– The process of selecting members of a research sample from a defined
population, usually with the intent that the sample accurately represents the
population. A sample comprises the individuals, items, or events selected from
a larger group referred to as a population.
ii)
Sampling
error- the deviation of a sample statistic from its population value
iii)
Types
of Sampling Techniques
a.
Convenience
sampling – a group of cases that are selected simply because they are available
and easy to access
b.
Probability
sampling – a procedure for drawing a sample from a population such that each
individual in the population has a known chance of being selected
c.
Purposeful
sampling – the process of selecting cases that are likely to be
“information-rich” with respect to the purposes of a qualitative research study
d.
Cluster
sampling – selecting naturally occurring groups in the population.
e.
Criterion
Sampling – selecting a group of cases that satisfy particular specifications or
standards
f.
Proportional
stratified random sampling – a technique in which the proportion of each
subgroup in the sample is the same as their proportion in the population
g.
Purposeful
random sampling –selecting by random sampling methods for the purpose of
establishing that the selection of cases was not biased.
h.
Random
sample or simple random sampling –selecting participants such that all members
of the accessible or target population have an equal and independent chance of
being selected
i.
Snowball
sample –selecting participants by asking one person to recommend someone
suitable as a case of the phenomenon of
interest, who then recommends another person who is a suitable case or who
knows potential cases; the process continues until the desired sample size is
achieved.
j.
Systematic
sampling – a type of sampling in which individuals are selected from a list by
taking every nth name.
k.
Purposive
sampling – the researcher selects a sample based on his or her experience or
knowledge of the group to be sampled.
l.
Quota
sampling – is most often used in survey research when it is not possible to
list all members of the population of interest.
iv)
Random
assignment – the process of assigning individuals or groups to the experiment
and control treatments such that each individual and group has an equal chance
of being in each treatment
5.
Ways
of Measurement
i)
Likert
Scale – a measure that asks individuals to check their level of agreement with
various statements about an attitude or object (e.g strongly agree, agree,
disagree, strongly disagree)
ii)
Questionnaire
– a measure that presents a set of written questions to which all individuals
in the sample respond
iii)
Rubric-
in performance assessment, this refers to a scale of measuring different levels
of proficiency demonstrated in students’ portforlio.
6.
Statistics
and Statistical Treatment
i)
Statistics
– numerical index describing a characteristic of a sample
ii)
Statistical
Treatment – a mathematical treatment used for summarizing or analyzing
numerical data or information
a.
Analysis
of Variance (ANOVA) – This is a statistical procedure applied to determine
whether the difference between the mean scores of two or more groups on a
dependent variable is statistically significant.
b.
Chi-square
– this is a nonparametric test of statistical significance that is used when
the research data are in the form of frequency counts for two or more
categories.
c.
Factor
Analysis – A statistical procedure for reducing a set of measured variables to
a smaller number of variables by combining variables that are moderately or
highly correlated with each other.
d.
Multiple
Regression- A statistical procedure for determining the magnitude of the
relationship between a criterion variable and a combination of two or more
prediction variables
7.
Ways
of Analyzing Qualitative Data
i)
Conversational
Analysis – the study of the implicit rules governing the speech acts between
two or more people
ii)
Discourse
Analysis – the study of the interpretative processes that individuals use to
produce their accounts of reality.
8.
Validity
and Reliability in Research
i)
Validity
– the research measures what it intends to investigate. There are two types of
validity:
i)
Construct
validity – the extent to which inferences from a test’s scores accurately
reflect the construct that the test claims to measure.
ii)
Content
validity – the extent to which inferences from a test’s scores adequately
represent the content or conceptual domain that the test claims to measure
iii)
Internal
validity – in experiments, it is the extent to which extraneous variables have
been controlled by the researcher so that any observed effects can be
attributed solely to the treatment variable.
ii)
Reliability
– in a qualitative research, it is the extent to which other researchers would
arrive at similar results if they studied the same case using exactly the same
procedures as the first researcher. In
classical test theory, it refers to the amount of measurement error in the
scores yielded by a test.
a.
Types of reliability
i)
Inter-observer
reliability – it is the extent to which the scores assigned by one observer of
events correlate with the scores assigned by another observer of the same
events.
ii)
Intra-observer-
reliability – it is the extent to which an observer makes consistent recordings
of observational variables while viewing a videotape or listening to an
audiotape of an event on several occasions
b.
Strategies
to achieve internal reliability
i)
Low
inference descriptors – describes behavior on which it is easy for independent
observers to agree.
ii)
Multiple
researchers/ participant researchers – the best way to guard against threats to
internal reliability. However, this is quite expensive. The alternative is to
enlist the aid of local informants to validate the interpretations of the ethnographer.
iii)
Peer
examination – this involves the corroboration by other researchers working in
similar settings
iv)
Mechanically
recorded data – this strategy allows for the preservation of the primary
data.
9.
Data
collection in qualitative research
i)
Observation
– certain questions can be best answered by observing how people act or how
things look.
ii)
Field
notes – observer’s record of what he or she has seen heard, experienced, and
thought about during an observation session
a.
Three
types of field notes
·
Field
jottings – these are quick notes about something the researcher wants to write
more about later. They provide the
stimulus to help researchers recall a lot of details they do not have time to
write down during the observation or interview.
·
Field
diary – a personal statement of the researcher’s feelings, opinions, or
perceptions about others with whom the researcher comes in contact with during
the course of his or her work.
·
Field
log – is a sort of running account of how researchers plan to spend their time
compared to how they actually spend it. It is, in effect, the researcher’s plan
for collecting his or her data systematically.
The value of maintaining a log is that it forces the researcher to think
hard about the questions he or she truly wants to be answered, the procedures
to be followed, and the data really needed.
b.
Two
Kinds of Materials for Field Notes
i)
Descriptive
field notes – attempts to describe the setting, the people and what they do
according to what the researcher observes. They include the following:
·
Portraits
of the subjects – their physical appearance mannerisms, gestures, how they act,
talk and so on.
·
Reconstruction
of dialogue – conversations between subjects, as well as what they say to the
researcher. Unique or particularly provoking statements should be quoted.
·
Description
of the physical setting – a quick sketch of the room assignments, placement of
materials, and so on.
·
Accounts
of particular events who was involved when, where, and how.
·
Depiction
of activities – a detailed description of what happened along with the order in
which it happened.
·
The
observer’s behavior – the researcher’s action, dress, conversations, and so on.
ii)
Reflective
field notes – present more of what the researcher himself or herself is
thinking about as he or she does the observation. These include the following:
·
Reflections
on analysis – the researcher’s speculations about what he or she is learning,
ideas that are developing, patterns or connections seen, so on.
·
Reflections
on method – procedures and materials that a researcher is using in the study,
comments about the design of the study, problems that are arising and so on.
·
Reflections
on ethical dilemmas and conflicts – such as any concerns that arise over
responsibility to subjects or value conflicts.
·
Reflections
on the observer’s frame of mind – such as what the researcher is thinking as
the study progresses- his or her attitudes, opinions, and beliefs- and how he/she
might be affecting the study.
·
Points
of clarification – notes to the researcher about things that need to be
clarified, checked later, etc.
iii)
Interviews
– a purposeful interaction, usually between two people, focused on one person
trying to get information from the other person. It permits the researcher to obtain important
data that cannot be obtained from observation.
a.
Types
of Interview Questions
i)
Background
or demographic questions – are routine sorts of questions about the background
characteristics of the respondents. They include questions about education,
previous occupation, age, income, and the like
ii)
Knowledge
questions – are questions researchers ask to find out what factual information respondents
possess.
iii)
Experience
or behavior questions – are questions a researcher asks to find out what a respondent
is currently doing or has done in the past. The intent is to elicit description
of experience, behavior, or activities that could have been observed.
iv)
Opinion
or values question - are questions
researchers ask to find out what people think about some topic or issue. Answers to such questions call attention to
the respondents’ goals, beliefs, attitudes, or values.
v)
Feelings
questions – are questions a researcher asks to find out how respondents feel
about things.They are directed toward emotional responses of people to their
experiences.
vi)
Sensory
questions – are questions a researcher asks to find out what a respondent, for example, has seen,
heard, tasted, smelled, or touched.
iv)
Introspective
Methods – this covers techniques in which data collection is carried out with
the mental events being investigated
a.
Think
aloud techniques – are those in which subjects complete a task or solve a
problem and verbalize their thought processes as they do so. The researcher
collects the think-aloud protocol on tape and then analyzes it for the thinking
strategies involved.
b.
Anagram
tasks – this is similar to Think Aloud, but the focus is on letters and words rather than numbers. An
anagram is a word or phrase whose constituent parts have been rearranged.
c.
Diary
studies – they have been used in investigations of second language acquisition,
teacher – learner interaction, teacher education, and other aspects of language
learning use.
d.
Stimulated
recall – is a technique in which the researcher records and transcribes parts
of a lesson then gets the teacher to comment on what was happening at the time
that the teaching and learning took place. Such a technique can yield insights
into processes of teaching and learning which would be difficult to obtain by
other means.
v)
Retrospection
– this pertains to the collection of data some time after the event under
investigation has taken place.
vi)
Elicitation
Techniques – these techniques are used to obtain data by means of a stimulus,
such as a picture, diagram, or standard test, as well as those based on a
questionnaire, survey and interview data.
Examples of these are production tasks, completion tasks, among others.
10.Other Concepts in Research
i)
Norming
Group – a large sample whose scores on a test provide a set of standards
against which the scores of subsequent individuals who take the test can be
referenced.
ii)
Pilot
Study – a small-scale, preliminary investigation that is conducted to develop
and test the measures or procedures that will be used in a research study. This
is a small scale study conducted with the purpose of revising the procedures to
be used in the main study.
iii)
Replication
– the process of repeating a research study with a different group of research
participants using the same or similar conditions for the purpose of increasing
confidence in the original study findings.
iv)
Triangulation
– this involves cross-checking of data using multiple sources of multiple data collection procedures
v)
Interview
Guide – this includes topics and issues to be covered which are specified in
advance in outline form; the interviewer decides the sequence and wording of
questions in the course of the interview.
vi)
Coding
– a way of analyzing data by assigning markers, numbers, or letters.
11.Literary Research
i) Steps in Doing Literary Research
a.
Select a topic- this pertains to the selection of
the author and the aspect or element of his or her work that you want to
study. Some of the literary topics could be a discussion of the
work's characters, if they are realistic, symbolic or historically-based; a
comparison and contrast of different authors or characters in a work; a reading of a work based on a
literary approach or theory outside philosophical perspective, e. g. how would
a Freudian read Hamlet?; a study of the sources or historical events that
occasioned a particular work, e.g. comparing G.B. Shaw's Pygmalion with the
original Greek myth of Pygmalion; an
analysis of a specific image occurring in several works, e.g the use of moon as
imagery in certain plays, poems, novels; a "deconstruction" of a
particular work, e.g. unfolding an
underlying racist worldview in Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness, among others
b. Prepare the research questions/objectives- a researcher has to be clear
about what he/she wants to achieve in the whole research undertaking. This will
provide direction to the study, as well as the information necessary to
determine the appropriate methodology.
c. Make a research hypothesis or assumption – in a literary research the
hypothesis or assumption is important as well, but unlike a quantitative
research like experimental or correlational research where the hypothesis can
either be accepted or rejected, the literary researcher is not encouraged to
commit too much too soon to the hypothesis at hand since, this may change as
the research progresses.
d. Prepare the methodology – in this section, the literary researcher
underscores the needed elements to address the research questions. This includes the identification of authors
to be studied, their texts to be analyzed, procedures or stages of the literary
research, among others. Since the
selection of materials is a significant aspect in any literary research, it is
labeled under steps of literary research and not just a component of the
methodology part.
e. Select Materials – In selecting the materials for a literary research,
make sure that you have built your bibliography. This includes the selection of a few good
articles about the author and his/her work.
Include the reviews made by literary critics of a particular work. Other things to consider are the following:
i) Identify the text/s to analyze
ii) Select the biographies and biographical
materials to include in the study (e.g. letters)
iii) Select the bibliographies of secondary sources
iv) Identify annotated bibliographies, for books or articles
v) Make a list of important works with evaluations as to which are most
important, canonical, widely read and accepted
f. Prepare the findings of the study – In this section, the researcher
answers the research questions and addresses the hypothesis of the study.
g. Write the research report – A research report must not only answer the
research questions and objectives, but also follow the conventions of writing.
Having said this, the researcher ensures that the final report is well edited
and proofread to adapt to the required style and format of the publisher.
ii) Translation
a. Topics to be explored
Research in Literature may include the study in translation. In doing
this type of research, the author may explore the following translation
studies:
i) Issues and problems in translation from one language to another language
or from one literary form to another literary form
ii) Evaluation of the language used in translation
iii) The universal appeal of the translation
b. Three phases of translation – Another thing to consider in translation
research is the process of translation itself.
The translation of a literary text undergoes phases to that the
translated material will remain faithful to the original text. These phases include:
i) Preparation for translation – a literary material to be translated well
has to be fully understood by the translator.
The translator must understand the basic and the whole point of the text
as well as its nuances. Hence, before a translator can begin translating the
text, (s)he must be in full grasp of the circumstances- political, social,
among others internal and external to the text.
It is also important that the translator has a clear interpretation of the
text at hand.
ii) Actual translation – in doing the actual translation, the translator needs to have a theoretical
grounding to support the manner and processes employed in the actual
translation. This is important in
setting a clear direction in the translation process
iii) Addressing issues – in translating a literary text certain issues must be
addressed. One of these is the
occurrence of words that have no equivalent in the target language. Another is the literary and writing style of
the author as opposed to the writing style of the translator. Next is the use of expressions for thoughts
and concepts as well as idiomatic expressions which may not have any equivalent
or counterpart in the target language.
Next is the tendency to alter the word order, structure among others in
the course of translation. Finally, the danger of having a literal
translation.
iv) Evaluation of the Translation – Any translated material must undergo an
evaluation process to ensure its faithfulness to the original text. To effect this, a translator needs to develop
or adapt a rubric which will serve as guide in determining the quality of the
translated material. The evaluation of
the translated material also includes the assigning of inter-raters to evaluate
the quality of the translation. In
selecting the inter-rater certain criteria have to set by the researcher. These criteria wholly depend on the type of
material being studied.
c. Application of Translation Methods – These translation methods are used
to address issues in translation and to ensure the faithfulness of the
translated material to the original text.
Some of the translation methods are:
i) Word-for-Word Translation – This is the literal translation which is used
to translate the words in their most common meaning. This method is used usually for the initial
phase in translation.
ii) Meaning-based Translation – this method gives the highest priority to the
meaning and form of the original, and is appropriate to translations of source
texts that have high status. It retains the aesthetic value of the translated
texts. It is both semantic and communicative in nature.
iii) Classroom Research
One of the challenges for language and literature teachers in this
information age is to be active contributors of knowledge in academic
setting. In academic institutions, from
elementary to tertiary, teachers are encouraged, and at some degree, are
expected to undertake a small-scale research. This small scale research is
often focused on the classroom interaction where the teacher –researcher is a
significant member.
Although the methods used in classroom research resembles those used in
other types of researches, classroom
research can be considered distinct because it focuses on issues and concerns
of a specific classroom. Hence,
classroom research addresses a specific learning concern in the classroom
setting.
a. Methods of classroom research
Classroom research can be done using the following
methods:
i) Methods comparison studies – this is probably the best known classroom
studies employing experimental method. This
seeks to evaluate the relative claims of different methods by randomly
assigning students to two different groups and providing differential
instruction to these groups. At the end of the research period, all students
are tested to determine which of the two competing methods is the more
effective.
ii) Stimulated recall – is a technique in which the researcher records and
transcribes parts of a lesson and then gets the teacher to comment on what was
happening at the time that the teaching and learning took place. This technique
yields insights into the processes of teaching and learning which would be
difficult to obtain by other means.
iii) Observation schemes – these schemes are used to document classroom
interaction. However, the information generated from these schemes are
extremely limited but very much focused on a particular point of view or
perspective.
iv) Interactional analysis – This involves the discursive analysis of
classroom talk. This focuses on the thematic structures and activity schemes.
The analysis of classroom activities covers (1) activity type, (2) participant
organization, (3) content, (4) student modality, and (5) materials. It also includes the language used in the
classroom, specifically the use of a target language, information gap, sustained
speech, reaction to code or message, incorporation of preceding utterances,
discourse initiation, and relative restriction of linguistic forms.
b. Focus of classroom research
Classroom research is a recommended approach for studying the
language and literacy interaction in the classroom. The main goal of a classroom research is to
study the processes, interaction, assessment and instruction that are happing
in the classroom.
i) Classroom processes – this involves the systems observed and administered
by the teacher in the classroom to effect learning and understanding
ii) Classroom interaction – this focuses on the type of talk observable
inside the classroom
iii) Classroom instruction – this centers on the teaching styles of the
teacher, selection of materials, use of teaching methodologies and strategies,
along with the students’ response to the initiatives of the teacher.
iv) Classroom assessment – this looks into the assessment and testing done in the classroom using both
teacher and expert made tests and assessment tools.
Q. Writing the research report
The
research is not complete without the written report. The report is the gateway
towards the understanding and appreciation of such intellectual endeavors.
Basically the report follows a conventional structure (as presented
above). What is discussed on this
section is the convention in writing a research report that a researcher should
observe. These are the following:
1. The research writer is expected to fit in his report to the intended
audience or readers. This means that the
researcher should meet the expectations, in terms of format and style of the
specific audience that who will read his work.
2. There are writing conventions for research report. The researcher should be aware of the
conventions in writing a report for language and literature research. It will
help if the research constantly reads the articles published in scholarly
journals for language and literature.
3. The technical details should be
dealt with care. The researcher should be aware of the style of presentation,
the details and length of the account, the terminology used, among others.
4. One should use the point of view preferred by the journal or the readers
of the journal. Eventhough, the first
person point of view is gaining popularity in writing of research reports, some
research books still advise the sue of the third person in writing the research
report (Denscombe, 2003).
5. The need to use the appropriate tense form. Traditionally, the past tense is often used
in writing the findings and discussion. However, this has become a problem in
recent research report writing because the writer also makes a reflection on
the information at hand. In writing these reflection, the use of the present
tense is expected.