STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH
LET Competencies:
· Demonstrate understanding of grammatical concepts by being able to describe and analyse, meaning, and use of various English language structures
BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS
Below
are basic patterns around which most English sentences are built.
1.
N be Adj
where the
adjective is a SUBJECT COMPLEMENT, in particular a PREDICATE ADJECTIVE. The
adjective refers back to the subject. The copula verbbe means “may be described as.”
Roses are sweet. (subject complement = predicate
adjective)
2. N be UW (= uninflected
word)
where the
uninflected word is an ADVERBIAL such as here, there, up, down, in, out,
inside, upstairs, downstairs, on, off, now, then, yesterday, and
tomorrow. Be has the meaning of “be located” or “occur.”
The meeting was yesterday. (adverbial)
3. N1 be N1
where the
superscript means that the two nouns have the same referent. The second noun
following the be verb is also a SUBJECT COMPLEMENT, in particular a PREDICATE
NOUN or PREDICATE NOMINATIVE.
Her neighbor is my cousin. (subject complement =
predicate nominative)
4. N InV (= intransitive verb)
where the INTRANSITIVE
VERB does not require an object. The verb being self-sufficient can stand alone
with its subject.
Glasses break.
5. N1 TrV (=
transitive V) N2
where N2
does not have the same referent as N1. N2 is
called the DIRECT OBJECT of the verb, “the receiver of the action.”
The girl buys yellow roses.
6. N1 TrV N2 N3
where the
superscripts 1, 2, and 3 indicate that each noun has a different referent.
Mother gave
a gift to the orphan.
(usually reads
as Mother gave the orphan a gift.)
Two noun objects occur after
the verb. Still N2 is
the direct object and N3
is the INDIRECT OBJECT. If we omit the last noun, the pattern is identical to
that in item 5. Note that the indirect object is preceded by the preposition to
(sometimes for or of). If the two objects are inverted, the
preposition disappears.
He made a toy house forher.
He made her a toy house.
The teacher asked a question of her.
The teacher asked her a question.
7. }N2
}Adj
}Pronoun
N1 TrV N2 }Adv (of place), uninflected
}Verb, present
participle
}Verb, past participle
There are choices
of different forms in sentence final position. These are illustrated as
follows:
(object complement) The class voted Henry secretary.
(adjective) The
principal found the gardener efficient.
(pronoun) We
considered the writer you.
(adverb of place) The teacher directed them outside.
(present participle) She saw them praying.
(past participle) I imagine my father overworked.
The most
common illustration of this sentence pattern is one with the occurrence of a
final N2.
NOUNS
Nouns can be recognized by means of the following
characteristics:
1.
They are names of
entities -- a person, place, thing, of idea.
2.
They have two INFLECTIONS,
the PLURAL{-es} and the POSSESSIVE (sometimes called the GENITIVE) {-‘s}. Both
inflections have various ALLOMORPHS
/əz/ appears after morphs ending in
sibilants or affricates / s, z, š, ž, č ǰ /
/s/ appears after morphs ending
in voiceless consonants / p, t, k, f, Ɵ /,
except the sibilants and affricate / s, š, č /
/z/ appears after morphs ending in vowels and voiced
consonants / b, d, g, v, ð, m, n, ŋ, l, r. y, w /, except the sibilants
and the affricate / z, ž, ǰ /
3.
They may be
marked by noun-forming DERIVATIONAL SUFFIXES added to bases or stems, usually
belonging to other parts of speech, e.g.
·
added to verbs
{-age} breakage
{-ee} employee
·
added to adjectives
{-ity} facility
{-ness} happiness
·
added to other nouns
{-cy} advocacy
{-ian} librarian
{-ship} friendship
4.
They fill certain
characteristic positions in relation to other parts of speech in phrases and
sentences.
·
just before a
verb
Red
rosesbloom in my garden.
·
after determiners
such as articles, demonstratives, and possessive adjectives, e.g., the examination, these
reviewees, my handouts
5.
Unlike other
languages, gender is not an important feature of English grammar. Gender is
only marked in certain pairs of nouns, e.g., waiter/waitress, host/hostess
6.
Certain SUPERFIXES/STRESS
PATTERNS occasionally identify nouns from other parts of speech as in: récòrd and rècórd. These two words are
morphemically alike; however, we identify the stress pattern / ˊ ˋ / as a noun.
7.
Nouns can serve
as HEADS in a noun phrase. As heads they may be preceded by one or more
single-word modifiers and followed by a phrasal or clausal modifier or both
thesmallstudytablein my roomwhich my father bought
Functions of Nouns
·
subject of verbs |
Several items have ambiguous stems. |
·
direct objects of verbs |
They administered the test.
|
·
indirect objects of verbs |
The lecturer provided the participants handouts. |
·
subject noun predicates/ ·
predicate nouns |
We are LET
reviewers. |
·
object noun predicates/ ·
object complements |
The reviewees chose him their representative. |
·
objects of prepositions |
in our
review class |
·
appositives |
The LET, a
professional examination, is conducted every year. |
·
vocatives/nouns of address |
Anne, how did you find the exam? |
Noun Types
1.
COMMON NOUNS refer
to a kind of person, thing, or idea
·
COUNT NOUNS which
take the plural inflection
·
MASS/NONCOUNT
NOUNS which don’t take the plural inflection
2.
PROPER NOUNS are
names for unique individuals or places
3.
COLLECTIVE NOUNS
are able to take either singular or plural verbs forms, depending on the
interpretation given to the noun, i.e., whether it is seen as a unit or as a
collection of individuals
The teamhaswon
all its games.
The teamhave
won awards in their respective events.
ARTICLES
ARTICLES are a subclass of DETERMINERS, which are noun-marking words. They usually come before the nouns they modify.
|
a/an
(indefinite articles) |
the
(definite article) |
no/zeroarticle |
|
|
Only before singular (sg) countable nouns (CNs) |
Before uncountable/mass nouns (UNs) and countable
plural (pl) nouns |
Identifies certain indefinite meanings of nouns |
|
1 |
Before an unidentified sg CN, one example of its
class a chair
(furniture) |
Backward reference to a N already mentioned A dog . . . and here is the dog now. |
Refers to all members of a class øDogs are domestic animals. |
|
2 |
Before an unidentified sg CN that is representative
of its class a dog (a
domestic animal) |
Forward reference to an identification soon to be
made, often by modifiers following a noun The history of his town |
Distinguishes
one class from another øMen, not women, are protectors. |
|
3 |
Before a predicate N after a be verb if no
determiner is used . . . is a
good neighbor |
Before superlatives and before ordinal numbers,
except ordinal numbers used alone (first
in her batch) The best cake I have ever seen The first person to fly in space |
Refers to an
indefinite number but not necessarily to all members of a class. øSeedlings are beginning to sprout. (many) |
|
4 |
With UNs to mean akind of, or withkind of,
or certain a smile an insight |
Content know to both writer and reader Thechapel in the village (only one chapel) |
With plural nouns after be. His brothers are øengineers. |
|
5 |
Before few and little to mean some
but not many afew friends alittle salt |
Identification of a class, especially in a
generalization, followed by a noun, or an adjective The youth is the hope of the future. the physically challenged |
With institutions and practices felt to be unique øOffices open at 7 o’clock. øDinner is usually late. |
|
6 |
When using a proper noun to indicate the
characteristics of the person named She is a
Sister Teresa. (a saintly person) |
Beginning of a phrase containing an appositive Interpret this item, the one with an illustration |
With set phrases, usually pairs øHeaven and hell |
|
7 |
To name “a certain person whose name is.” AMr. Alba came to see you. |
|
With prepositional phrases At ørest,
in ødanger, on øtime |
|
8 |
|
|
With nouns used in headlines in newspapers, captions
in books, signs, labels and the like øMURDERER ESCAPES BEWARE OF øDOG |
|
9 |
|
For a family name in the plural TheBasas have arrived. |
With common nouns used as terms of address and
therefore capitalized. We are ready to go, øMother. |
|
10 |
|
Distinguishes people who have the same name TheJessica Reyes who joined the beauty pageant is notthe Jessica Reyes who is my
cousin. |
|
|
11 |
|
When the article is part of a geographical name ThePhilippines TheUnited States TheRed Sea |
|
|
12 |
|
When the article is accepted as part of any kind of
proper name ThePhilippine Star The Princess of Negros The Hilton TheUniversity of St. Tomas The United Nations |
|
|
PRONOUNS
Most pronouns stand for, refer to, or replaces a noun
or a noun phrase within a text; hence, they occupy the same position as a noun
or noun phrase does. The word or words that a pronoun stands for are its ANTECEDENT or REFERENCE.
My brother holds dual
citizenship. He is not
only a Filipino but also a Canadian
citizen.
I and me
stand for the speaker or writer.
I am a Filipino, but I am living in Australia
now.
Pronouns can also be a direct reference to an outside
situation (e.g., “What is that?”
in response to a sound or noise).
Kinds of Pronouns
There are many different kinds of pronouns: SUBJECT, OBJECT, POSSESSIVE, REFLEXIVE, DEMONSTRATIVE and others. The forms within each category are distinguished by number (singular/plural), person (first/second/third) gender (masculine/feminine/neuter), and in the case of demonstratives, by number and proximity.
Personal and Related Pronouns
Person/ Number |
Personal |
Possessive |
Reflexive/ Intensive |
||
Singular |
Subject Form |
Object Form |
Noun replacement |
Determiner/ Adjective |
|
+ I |
I |
me |
mine |
my |
myself |
+ II |
you |
you |
yours |
your |
yourself |
+ III |
|
|
|
|
|
Masculine |
he |
him |
his |
his |
himself |
Feminine |
she |
her |
hers |
her |
herself |
Neuter |
it |
it |
- |
its |
itself |
Plural |
|
|
|
|
|
+ I |
we |
us |
ours |
our |
ourselves |
+ II |
you |
you |
yours |
your |
yourselves |
+ III |
they |
them |
theirs |
their |
themselves |
Things to Remember:
1.
Animals closely
related to people can be referred to by he, him, and his or she,
her, and hers.
The dog loves his/her/its master.
2.
Use it and
its to refer to inanimate objects except ships, which are always referred
as she.
3.
Countries and
schools are sometimes referred to by she or her.
4.
Traditionally,
the pronouns he, him, and his have been used for mixed groups or groups
in which the sex is unknown. Many people now object to this use, so they use
both the masculine and feminine forms or the plural forms to avoid the problem.
Everybody submitted his or her assignment. (awkward)
All the students submitted their assignments. (acceptable)
5.
If I, me, my or
mine or their plural counterparts are part of a pair or a series, put
them last.
The teacher confiscated his toy and mine, too.
Father helped Tony with his project, and he will help my sister and me
with ours tomorrow.
Reflexive Pronouns
1.
Use the reflexive
pronoun as the object of the verb form or preposition to refer to the subject
of the sentence.
The baby is able to
feeditself.
Luis cut himselfwith a razor blade.
2.
The phrase by
+ self or its emphatic form all by + self means alone or without
any help.
I crossed the river (all)
by myself.
Intensive Pronouns
The intensive form occurs directly after the word it
modifies or at the end of the clause.
The mayorherselfdistributed the relief
goods.
The mayordistributed
the relief goods herself.
Reciprocal Pronouns
1.
The reciprocal
pronoun forms are each other and one another. They mean that each
part of the subject did the action and also received the action.
2.
They must be
objects of verb forms or objects of prepositions.
3.
Some prefer to
use each other for two people or things and one another for more
than two.
The two finalists congratulated each other for making it to the top.
The class members prepared surprise gifts for one another during the Christmas
party.
Demonstrative Pronouns
1.
Demonstrative
pronouns occur alone. They do not precede nouns.
Thisis my
favorite movie.
2.
Demonstrative
pronouns can show distance or contrast not connected with distance.
(distance) This is mine; thatis
yours over there.
(contrast) Which
ones do you prefer, these
or those?
Indefinite Pronouns
Personal |
anyone anybody |
everyone everybody |
none no one nobody |
someone somebody |
another other ones others |
Non-Personal |
anything |
everything every one |
nothing none |
something |
another other ones others |
Use singular verbs with compound pronouns and use
singular pronouns to refer to them in formal writing.
Formal: Nobody brought his
book today.
Informal: Nobody brought their books
today.
Interrogative Pronouns
Who, whom, whose, which, and what can begin questions.
1.
Use who, whom,
whose and which to refer to persons..
2.
Use what and
which to refer to things and events.
3.
In formal
writing, use who for the subject of a clause and whom for the
object of the verb or preposition.
Relative Pronouns
1. RELATIVE PRONOUNS (sometimes called CLAUSE MARKERS) introduce dependent clauses (also called RELATIVE CLAUSES).
2. Relative pronouns used in adjective clauses are who, whom, whose, which and that.
3.
Who, whom, and whose are used for persons while which
is used for non-persons.
The guestwho came to dinner is the governor.
The bookwhich I bought is a best seller.
4.
That is a neutral form. It can be marked +humanor–human.
In other words, it can be a substitute for both who (+human) or which
(-human).
The guestwho/that came to dinner is the
governor.
The bookwhich/that I bought is a best seller.
5.
In informal
writing, whom is optional; in formal writing, whom must be used
(informal)Nora is the girl you saw in the party last night.
(formal)Nora is the girl whom you saw in the party last night.
6.
That, which and whom are the only relative pronouns that
can be left out.
The instrumental music (that) I like to hear often is that of
Zamfir.
The house pests (which) I hate to see are the rodents and the cockroach.
7.
Who, whom, and whose can be used in both essential/RESTRICTIVE
and nonessential/NON-RESTRICTIVE clauses.
The man, who came to
dinner, is the mayor. (nonessential/non-restrictive, bounded by commas)
The man who came to dinner is the mayor. (essential/restrictive, without commas)
8.
That instead of which is used only in essential or
restrictive clauses, so do NOT put commas around clauses beginning with that.
The poster that won first prize pleased both the judges and the
viewers.
*The poster, that won first prize, pleased both the judges and
the viewers.
(*means ungrammatical)
9. Use which in nonessential or
nonrestrictive clauses. Separate nonessential clauses from the rest of the
sentence by commas.
Our car, which has been running for three days, should be brought to the machine shop for check-up.
10. Relative pronouns used in
noun clauses are that, what, whatever, whoever,
whomever, and whichever.
(noun
clause as subject) Whatever you offer will be
appreciated.
(noun clause as direct He
will befriend whoever he
gets
object) acquainted with.
11. Look at the antecedent of who, that or which when used as subject to
decide
whether the
verb following should be singular or plural.
The paintingwhichis exhibited is the painter’s masterpiece.
Thefarmerswhoown
orchards earn much from their harvest.
VERBS
A verb can be recognized by means of the following
characteristics:
·
Denotes an action
(e.g., read) or a state of being (e.g. know). ACTION VERBS are
dynamic. STATE OF BEING VERBS (or STATIVE VERBS) include the copula or linking
verbs, e.g. the be-verbs,
remain, appear, and become.
·
Has four
inflections
{-s} of
third person singular present tense verbs
{-ed} of
simple past tense verbs
{-en} of the
past participle
{-ing} of
the present participle
The third person singular –s
has the same allomorphs as the noun plural and the noun possessive.
The –ed past tense
inflection has three allomorphs:
/əd/ after
morphs which end in / t / or / d / as in planted, raided
/t/ after
morphs that end in voiceless sounds except / t / as in
brushed, jumped, walked
/d/ after
morphs which end in voiced sounds except / d / as in cleaned, grabbed, agreed
·
Follows a subject
noun and may be followed in turn by adjectives
}______ eager
[to enhance their knowledge].
The reviewees }______ seriously.
}______ their handouts.
·
May fall under
one more or more of these types
o
INTRANSITIVE VERBS which does not
take an object (direct)
Flowers bloom.
o
TRANSITIVE VERBS which require an
object (direct)
Flowers needwater
and sunlight.
o
DITRANSITIVE VERBS which take two
objects (direct and indirect)
Alexgavehis girlfriend three red roses.
o
LINKING/COPULA VERBS where what
follows the verb relates back to the subject (subject complement -- a predicate
noun or a predicate adjective)
Roses are
lovely Valentine’s Day gifts.
Roses are
sweet.
o
COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERBS where what
follows the object (direct) relates to the object
They
chose Niña, muse of the
team.
o
PREPOSITIONAL VERBS which requires
a prepositional phrase to be complete
We looked
at the pictures taken during our graduation
·
Have tense
and aspect qualities. Tense and aspect have to do with form. TENSE is “the
grammatical marking on verbs that usually indicates time reference relative to
either the time of speaking or the time at which some other situation was in
force” (Jacobs 1995). Time reference has to do with meaning. Events and
situations are located in time, perhaps to our speaking about them, perhaps
while we are speaking about them, or perhaps at some later time. English has
three tenses – present, past, and future. The present and
the past tenses have inflectional markings, while the future is marked by the
inclusion of the modals will or shall. Simply put, tense is a set
of verb forms that indicate a particular point in time or period of time in the
past, present, or future.
ASPECT is a general name given
to verb forms used to signify certain ways in which an event is viewed or
experienced. Aspect can view an event as completed whole (simple), or whether
or not it has occurred earlier (perfect aspect) or is still in progress
(progress).
Noel has
attended the review classes. (perfect)
Now he is studying
for the LET exam. (progressive)
The tenses in combination with
aspects make up the following 12 tense-aspect categories. These make up the
traditional 12 tenses.
Tense-Aspect
Combinations
|
Simple |
Perfect |
Progressive |
Perfect Progressive |
|
ø |
have + -en |
be + -ing |
have + -enbe + -ing
|
Present |
dream/dreams |
has/have dreamed |
am/is/are dreaming |
has/have been dreaming |
eat/eats |
has/have eaten |
am/is/are eating |
has/have been eating |
|
Past |
dreamed |
had dreamed |
was/were dreaming |
had been dreaming |
ate |
had eaten |
was/were eating |
had been eating |
|
Future |
will/shall dream |
will/shall have dream |
will/shall be dreaming |
will/shall have been dreaming |
will/shall eat |
will/shall have eaten |
will/shall be eating |
will/shall have been eating |
Sometimes, if we want to draw
attention to the time of the action, we use an ADJUNCT OF TIME, which can be an
adverb, a noun group, or a prepositional phrase, e.g.:
(adverb) She’s coming tomorrow.
(noun group) Results
of the examination were released last
week.
(prepositional phrase) He
will feel relieved after the exam.
VERB TENSES: Their Meanings and Common Uses
SIMPLE
ASPECT: complete wholes; unchanging
1. SIMPLE
PRESENT: the present in general
·
To talk about our
thoughts and feelings at the present moment or about our immediate reactions to
something
I’m terribly busy.
He looks
excited.
·
To talk about a
settled state of affairs which includes the present moment
He lives in Sagada now.
Our teacher is very
competent and considerate. We like her very much.
·
To say something
is always or generally true
There are 24 hours in a day.
The earth revolves around
its axis.
·
To talk about
something that a particular person or thing does regularly or habitually.
I get up
early to take a bath.
Every
Sunday, I attend church services.
·
To discuss what
happens in a book, play or film
In the movie, he plays the
character of Juan Tamad.
In those early chapters, he
keeps himself isolated to other people in the village.
·
To describe an
event such as a sports match or a ceremony at the time it is happening as radio
and TV commentators do
Doods takes the ball, then
passes it quickly to Alfie. Alfie turns, shoots, and scores two points.
2. SIMPLE PAST: Stating a definite time in the
past
An adjunct of time or other
time expression is necessary to specify the particular time in the past we are
referring to.
·
To say that an
event occurred or that something was the case at a particular time in the past.
The
university officials flew into Jakartalast week to sign a memorandum of
agreement with a sister school.
·
To say that a
situation existed over a period of time in the past.
He lived in his ancestral
home in the countryside during his last years.
·
To talk about an
activity that took place regularly or repeatedly in the past, but which no
longer occurs
We swam in
the river a great deal in my childhood.
3.SIMPLE
FUTURE: An expression of what we think might happen or what we intendto happen
·
To say that
something is planned to happen, or that we think it is likely to happen in the
future
What
do you think Ella will do to fix it?
·
To talk about
general truths and to say what can be expected to happen if a particular
situation arises
An
attack of dengue fever can keep a man off work for a few days. He will earn nothing and he have trouble
paying his hospital bills.
PERFECT
ASPECT: prior
1.
PRESENT PERFECT:
the past in relation to the present
We cannot use adjuncts or
expressions which place the action at a definite time in the past. But we can
use adjuncts of duration, e.g. forever, always.
*I have watched it the other day.
I ate raw vegetables, which I always avoided, and there was no other
choice.
To
mention something that happened in the past but we do not want to state
a specific time.
I
have read the book several times.
2.
PAST PERFECT:
Events before a particular time in the past
To talk
about a past event or situation that occurred before a particular time in the past
By
noon, students had gathered at the quadrangle with their placards.
3.
FUTURE PERFECT
To
refer to something that has not happened yet, but will happen before a particular time in the future.
By
the time he graduates, his parents will already have left for New Zealand
PROGRESSIVE
ASPECT: incomplete action; changing
1.
PRESENT
PROGRESSIVE: Accent on the present
·
To talk about
something that is happening at the moment we are speaking
I’m
already feeling bored and hungry.
·
To emphasize the
present moment or to indicate that a situation is temporary
She’s
spending the summer in her hometown.
·
To indicate
changes, trends, developments, and progress
He’s
performance in class is improving.
·
To talk about a
habitual action that takes place regularly, especially one which is new or
temporary
She’s
spending a lot on clothes these days.
2.
PAST PROGRESSIVE:
accent on the past
·
To talk about
continued states or repeated actions which occurred in the past
His
body was trembling; his fever was rising.
·
To contrast a
situation with an event which happened just after that situation existed. We
use the past continuous to describe the first event and the simple past to
describe the event which occurred after it.
We
were standing at the main gate waiting to welcome the guest speaker. He arrived 20 minutes later.
3.
FUTURE
PROGRESSIVE
·
To say something
will surely happen because arrangements have been made
They
will be sending their students regularly to the University for English
proficiency enhancement.
·
To emphasize the
duration of a recent event
She’s
been crying bitterly.
PERFECT-PROGRESSIVE
ASPECT
1.
PRESENT PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
·
To talk about an
activity or situation that started at some time in the past, continued, and is
still happening now.
The
economy has been declining in many parts of the world.
2.
PAST PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
·
To emphasize the
recentness and duration of a continuous activity which took place before a
particular time in the past.
The
old woman had been living alone in that dilapidated house.
·
To say that
something was expected, wished for, or intended before a particular time in the
past.
I
had been expecting a phenomenal rise in his political career.
3.
FUTURE PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
·
To emphasize the
duration to an event at a specific time in the future
By January 2011, she will have been serving
this university for 38 years.
AUXILIARY/HELPING
VERBS
1.
VERB PHRASE/VERB
COMPLEX: consists of an auxiliary + a main verb, e.g., mustwork, have been reading, will be informed. The
underlined word or words are the auxiliary
or helping verbs.
2.
AUXILIARY/HELPING
VERBS
A.
MODAL AUXILIARIES
and their related phrasal forms
True Modals |
Phrasal Modals |
can, could |
be able to |
will, shall |
be going
to, be about to |
must |
have* to, have
got to |
should, ought to |
be to, be
supposed |
would (= past habit) |
used to |
may, might |
be allowed
to, be permitted to |
*The
verb betakes several forms such as is,
are, was, were, and will be.Havetakes the forms has, have,
and had
§ NON-MODAL AUXILIARIES : be, do, and
have verbs
Of all the auxiliaries, only
the non-modals can change form.
Distinguishing Characteristics Between True Modals and Phrasal Modals
|
True Modals |
Phrasal Modals |
1 |
Do not inflect, i.e., the forms
remain unchanged canpass |
Inflect like other ordinary
verbs am/is/are/was/were/will
be able to pass |
2 |
Lack tense and a resultant lack
of subject-verb agreement We can pass the LET. He can pass the LET. |
Subject-agreement rule applies
except the form used to We are able to pass the LET. He is able to pass the LET. |
3 |
Do not require an infinitive
marker to precede the main verb must study hard |
Requires an infinitive marker toto precede the main verb has/have/had to study hard |
3.
OPERATORS/OPERATOR
VERBS
·
The OPERATOR is a
verb that has three main functions: 1) It precedes the negative and combines
with it when the negative is contracted to n’t;
2) It is the verb that moves around the subject to the sentence initial
position in yes-no questions; and 3) It is also the verb that appears in
the tag phrases of interrogative sentences or tag questions.
My father will not approve your marriage
proposal.
My father won’t approve your marriage
proposal.
Will your father approve my marriage proposal?
Willyour father not approve my marriage proposal?
Won’t your father approve my marriage proposal?
Your father will approve my
marriage proposal, won’the?
·
When a clause
contains no verb eligible to be an operator, do is introduced.
He attends the graduation ball
tonight.
è He doesattend the graduation ball
tonight.
è He doesnot attend the
graduation ball tonight.
è Does he attend the graduation ball tonight?
è He attends the graduation
ball tonight, doesn’t he?
·
If there are two
or more auxiliary verbs present in the VERB PHRASE, the first auxiliary serves as
the operator.
He has been reading the Obama
autobiography.
è Hehas not been reading the Obama
autobiography.
*He has been not reading the Obama
autobiography.
è Has he been reading the
Obama autobiography.
He has been reading the
Obama autobiography, hasn’t
he?
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT/CONCORD RULES WHICH OFTEN CAUSE ERRORS
1. Collective nouns may take either a singular or
plural verb inflection depending on the meaning.
·
Conceived of as
one entity – takes a singular verb
Our school teamhas
won its games.
·
Conceived of as
more than one entity or refers to individual membership – takes plural verb
Our school teamhave
won all their games.
2. Some common and proper nouns ending in –s, including –ics nouns and certain diseases are always conceived as single
entity – take a plural verb.
The recent newsisexciting.
Mathematicsis repelling to many students.
Measlesisa contagious disease.
The United Statesis still a powerful country.
3. Titles of works even when plural in form are
conceived of as single entitles.
The Ten Commandmentsis a beautiful movie.
The Syntax Filesis good reading for those in
linguistics.
The song Greenfieldsbringsnostalgia to people of my
generation.
4. Nouns occurring in sets of two take the singular
when the noun pair is present but take the plural when pair is
absent.
That pair of Lee jeans
is expensive.
My glassesaremissing.
5. Fractions and percentages
takes a singular verb inflection when modifying a noncount noun and a plural verb when they modify a plural noun.
Either a singular or plural verb inflection may be used when they modify a
collective noun, depending on the speaker’s meaning.
More than half of
the cakeis eaten.
Twenty percent of
the studentsare not
joining the field trip.
One-fourth of the
audienceis/are teachers.
6. A number normally
takes the plural. The number takes the singular.
A number of parents are coming for the meeting.
The number of signatories is substantial to merit approval
of the motion.
7. When we use a number and a
plural noun to talk about two or more things, we usually use a plural verb. We
use a singular verb with ‘one’.
Seven daysmake
up a week.
One solid evidence is enough to prove his dishonesty.
8. When we are talking about
an amount of money or time, or a distance, speed, or weight, we usually use a
number, a plural noun, and a singular verb.
Five hundred dollarsisa lot of money.
Three
yearsisa long time to wait for a family member from abroad to
come home.
Eighty
kilometers per hour of travelis quite risky on slippery roads.
Seventy-five
poundsis all she weighs now.
9. Arithmetic operations take
the singular because they are perceived as reflecting a single numerical entity
on both sides of the equation or equal sign.
Two plus twois/equalsfour.
10. The quantifiers a lot (of), lots of, and plenty of take a singular verb if the
subject noun is noncount by plural verb if the subject head noun is plural.
A lot of sound viewswere advanced during the
discussion.
A lot of nonsenseis evident from uninterested
participants.
11. Traditional grammar states
that when used as a subject, none (meaning not one) is always singular
regardless of what follows in a prepositional phrase.
None of the boysjoinsthe mountaineering group.
None of the riceis eaten at all.
12. Traditional grammar
maintains that the antecedent of the relative pronoun is the noun before.
Alice is one of the graduate students
who havefinished her
master’s degree in a short period of time.
13. For correlatives either
. . . or and neither . . . nor, traditional grammar argues for a
proximity rule, i.e., subject-verb agreement should occur with the subject noun
nearest to the verb.
Either my friend or my classmatesareexpected to help me with my project.
Neither my classmates nor my friendvolunteers to lend support.
14. A singular noun or pronoun
should take a singular verb inflection regardless of what else occurs between
the subject and the verb.
Jimmy, along with his co-teachers, conducts a cleanliness campaign in
the barangay.
15. In
questions, subjects don’t always come before verbs. Identify accurately the subject
before deciding on the proper verb to use.
Does your father usually go jogging?
What are the pages our teacher wants us to read?
VOICE
VOICE pertains to who or what serves as the subject in
a clause. In the ACTIVE VOICE,
the subject of a clause is most often the agent, or doer, of some action. In
the PASSIVE VOICE, the subject
of a clause is the receiver or undergoer of the action. The passive “defocuses”
the agent. (Shibitani 1985 in Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman 2001)
The lifeguard savedthe child.
(active)
The child was saved [by the lifeguard]. (passive)
The passive voice is more limited than the active in
that it requires only the transitive verbs – verbs that take direct objects.
The passive morphology is be . . . –en, i.e., a
form of the be verb + the past participle. Usually in passive
sentences the agent is not mentioned at all, referred to as the AGENTLESS PASSIVE. If the agent is
mentioned (= AGENTED PASSIVE),
it appears in a prepositional phrase marked by the preposition by.
Some passive sentences have no active counterparts.
Justin was born in Canada.
Advantages of the Active Voice
1.
An active clause
can give more information in fewer words.
2.
An active verb
makes writing livelier and more vivid.
Uses of the
Passive Voice
1.
A passive
construction emphasizes the result in an impersonal style. This use is
sometimes desirable in scientific and technical writing.
A new strain of malaria was discovered.
2.
A passive verb
emphasizes a victim or the result of a disaster.
Active: The child broke the antique vase.
Passive: The antique vase was broken.
3.
Use the passive
when the agent or the actor is so unimportant or is obvious that you do not
need to mention it.
Rica was born in Seychelles.
4.
Use a passive
verb if you want to hide the name of the person who is responsible for an
unpleasant decision or result.
An increase in tuition fees was proposed.
Forms of the English Passive
We usually form simple passives like these:
Paper is produced from trees.
(simple present)
Paper was produced from trees. (simple past)
Here are other possible forms:
1.
With modals
Paper can be produced from trees.
2.
With present
perfect
Paper has been produced from trees.
3.
With present
progressive
Paper is being produced from trees.
4.
With past
progressive
Paper were being produced from trees.
5.
With be going
to for future
Paper is going to be produced from trees.
PHRASAL VERBS
These are verbs which consist
of two or three words. They consist of:
1.
a verb followed
by an adverb;
go
up, spill over, and push through
2.
a verb followed
by a preposition;
come
upon, reckon with, and bank on
3.
a verb followed
by an adverb and a preposition
break
out of, look forward to, and go along with
Just like ordinary verbs,
phrasal verbs may be used:
1.
intransitively
Why
don’t you speak up?
2.
transitively
Let’s
cut down pollution to conserve our environment./
Let’s
cut pollution down to conserve our environment.
Note that some
phrasal verb may be separable. This is further explained below.
3.
both
intransitively and transitively
A
plane took off.
She took
off her coat because it was warm./
She took
her coat off because it was warm.
Meaning of Some Phrasal
Verbs
A two-word verb often has a one-word synonym, which is generally more formal. Here are some examples:
Phrasal
Verb |
Synonym |
Phrasal
Verb |
Synonym |
call up |
telephone |
give in/up |
surrender |
keep on |
continue |
leave out |
omit |
pick out |
choose |
put off |
postpone |
Separable and Inseparable Verbs
·
Parts of
inseparable phrasal verbs cannot be separated. If there is a direct object, it
follows the phrasal verb.
Look after your baby brother.
*Look your baby brother after.
Look after him
·
On the other
hand, the object of separable phrasal verbs is movable. A pronoun object comes
between the first and second part. A short noun object can come between the two
parts or can follow the second part.
Donna turned it on.
Donna turned the light on.
Donna turned on the
light.
·
Some phrasal
verbs can be either separable or inseparable according to their meanings in a
certain context.
She passed out. (fainted)
She passedthe
brochuresout. (distributed)
The car broke down. (stopped running)
The polite broke
the door down. (opened by force)
Separable Phrasal Verbs with Their Objects
|
Object |
|
back |
it/the car |
up |
blow |
it/the candle |
out |
|
it/the balloon |
up |
break |
them/the
statistics down |
down |
|
them/the
negotiations |
off |
bring |
it/the change |
about |
|
it/the subject |
up |
burn |
it/the building |
down |
|
them/the papers |
up |
clear |
them/the dishes |
away |
|
it/the
misunderstanding |
up |
close |
it/the business
|
down |
draw |
it/the
agreement |
up |
fill |
it/a form |
in/out |
|
it/the cup |
up |
find |
it/the answer |
out |
give |
it/this old bag |
way |
|
it/eating candy |
up |
|
it/the news |
out |
hand |
it/the work |
in/out |
keep |
them/expenses |
down |
|
it/the radio |
on |
leave |
it/the question |
out |
let |
them/our
friends |
in/out |
lock |
them/the prisoners |
up |
look |
them/our
relatives in Manila |
up |
make |
it/the
handwriting |
out |
|
it/a story |
up |
mix |
it/food being
prepared |
up |
|
them/people |
up |
pass |
it/the
responsibility |
on |
pay |
it/the money |
back |
|
them/my enemies |
back |
pick |
it/a new shirt |
out |
point |
it/the problem |
out |
ADJECTIVES
An adjective –
1.
Is a word which
describes or denotes the qualities of something
2.
Commonly occurs
between a determiner and a noun, or after be
or other linking verbs or immediately following the intensifier very
the _____ baby seems (very)
_____
the hungrybaby seems (very) hungry
3.
Is associated
with certain derivational morphemes
{-y} healthy, leafy
{-al} racial, normal
{-able} understandable, visible
{-ed} aged, learned
{-ful/-less} hopeful, hopeless
{-ish} childish, boyish
{-ive} active, native
{-ous} famous, marvellous
4.
Has inflectional
morphemes for comparative and superlative forms
pretty prettier prettiest
5.
Modifies or
complements nouns
the honest man (modifier)
The man is honest. (complement)
6.
Has various types
in terms of characteristic positions: ATTRIBUTIVE which precede nouns, and PREDICATIVE
which follow linking verbs
The diligentstudents pass the toughexam. (attributive)
They arehappywith their high scores. (predicative)
Other Related Concepts
1.
Restrictive/Nonrestrictive
adjectives
RESTRICTIVEadjectives are
necessary for defining which noun is being referred to while NON-RESTRICTIVE
adjectives merely add information without being essential for identification.
A concrete
house. (restrictive)
My uncle owns a house, built of concrete materials. (non-restrictive)
2.
Polarity
POLARITY refers to positive and
negative contrasts in a language.
Positive polarity Negative
polarity
big small,
little
old young
long short
good bad
fast slow
Adjectives with positive
polarity are UNMARKED FORMS
because they are used more frequently in a given language, learned earlier by
children, and used in neutral contexts. Adjectives of negative polarity are MARKED. They are less frequently used.
3.
GRADABILITY
· Adjectives can be placed in continuum of intensity, with the intensity increasing or decreasing depending on the intensifier chosen.
[Less intense] |
|
[More intense] |
Somewhat rare, rare, quite rare, very rare,
extremely rare |
·
Adjectives that
can be compared are also called gradable adjectives. Comparative forms
(adjectives marked by -er, more, or less) show
differences/contrasts between two things or groups. Superlative forms (marked
by –est, most, or least) show differences in three or more things
or groups.
·
Comparison do nor
apply to absolutes such as unique, possible, impossible, horizontal, round,
square, and fatal. They can co-occur with words like nearly and almost.
The
accident was fatal.
The accident was nearly fatal.
The accident was almost fatal.
·
The as . . .
as construction is used to show that two things or groups are similar.
Ella is as
tall as her mother.
Order of Adjectives in Noun Groups
When two or more adjectives are used in a structure,
they usually occur in a particular order or sequence as follows:
DET |
opinion |
size |
shape |
condition |
age |
color |
origin |
NOUN |
many |
pretty |
small |
round |
chipped |
antique |
blue |
Chinese |
vases |
ADVERBS
ADVERBS modify or change the meaning of other words
such as verbs, adjectives, another adverb, or even a whole sentence.
(verb modifier) The athlete can run fast.
(adjective modifier) Sailboats are really beautiful to
watch.
(adverb modifier). The athlete can run very fast.
(sentence modifier) Perhaps, Nena’s family will give a
party
Adverbs or adverbials vary in form as follows:
Adverbial clause: The child cried because he was hungry.
Adverbial phrase: Diane sang very sweetly.
Prepositional phrase: She sang during our class reunion.
Word: We eagerly look forward to your
graduation.
Adverbs can be readily recognized through certain
affixes. For example:
1. Suffix –ly hopefully,
popularly
2. Prefix a- aloud,
adrift, anew
3. Suffix –wise lengthwise,
clockwise
4. Suffix –wards backward(s), forward(s)
Kinds of Adverbs
1. Adverbs of frequency: answer the question how often?
(always, never, usually, rarely)
2. Adverbs of relative time can be used with all tenses as meaning permits
(just,
still, already, lately)
3. Adverbs of manner answer
the question how? orhow well?
(carefully, eagerly, clearly, quickly)
4. Adverbs of place answer
the question where?
(here, in the city)
5. Adverbs of time answer
the question when?
(today, on April 15)
7. adverbs that emphasize only and even
Where we put only makes a big change in the meaning
of a clause. To illustrate:
(no one else) 1. Onlyhe invited Alex to join the
team this year.
(not ordered) 2.
He onlyinvited Alex to join the team this year this year.
(no one but Alex) 3.
He invited only Alex to join the team this year.
(to join, not to do 4.
He invited Alex only to join the team this year.
anything else)
(recently as
or 5. He invited Alex to join the team only this year.
at no other time)
Positions of Adverbials
While some adverbials are fixed in their positions in
the sentence, others are movable. They can occur sentence initially, medially,
or finally.
Sentence-initial: Doubtlessly, we must conclude that
the findings are correct.
Sentence-medial: We, doubtlessly, must conclude that
the findings are correct.
Sentence-final: We must conclude that the findings are
correct, doubtlessly.
Order of Adverbials
When two or more adverbials co-occur in final position
in the same sentence, ordering should be observed.
{direction} +
position↔ manner + time ↔ frequency + {purpose}
{goal } {reason}
He walks homeleisurely at 5:30 PMevery daybecause he wants to
feel relaxed.
He walks homeleisurelyevery dayat 5:30 PM because he wants to
feel relaxed.
CONJUNCTIONS
Coordination
COORDINATION is the process of combining ideas. Two constituents
of the same type can be put together to produce another larger constituent of
the same type. Traditional grammar calls this process COMPOUNDING.
Compound
sentence: The boys sangandthe
girls danced last night.
Compound
subject: The teacher andher
students will join the parade.
Compound
verb: The children playandeat
during recess.
Compound
object: We boiled cornandcassava.
Conjoining like constituents as shown above is
referred to as SIMPLE COORDINATION.
Here are other ways of coordinating ideas:
1.
ELLIPSIS: Omission or elision of
the first verb phrase in the second and adding the word too or either
(for UNINVERTED FORMS), and so or
neither (for INVERTED FORMS).
Affirmative forms
My friends like to read storybooks and I, too. (uninverted)
A horse runs fast, and so
does an ostrich. (inverted)
Negative forms
Donna can’t climb a tree, and his little brother can’t, either. (uninverted)
Ducks can’t fly high, andneither
can chickens. (inverted)
2.
Use ofPRO-FORM, i.e., the
substitution of pronoun for a repeated noun.
Luis plays the guitar andhe
plays the harp, too.
3.
COMPLEX orCORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
like both . . . and..
My father is both
kind andsincere.
Forms of Coordinating Conjunctions
Other than and, simple coordinating
conjunctions include: for, nor, but, or, yet, and so. Note the
following examples:
milk or chocolate
small but/yet
terrible
He came late, so he
missed the fun. (clausal)
They accepted the verdict, for they failed to counter the charges against them. (clausal)
Other forms of correlative conjunctions are either
. . . or, not only . . . but also, and neither . . . nor.
These pairs are used together
Either Tony orNico will top the test.
Anna is neither
friendly nor generous.
Our teacher is not only competent but
also very understanding.
Use of Coordinating Conjunctions
Below is a straightforward account of the simple
conjunctions:
Conjunction |
Meaning |
Conjunction |
Meaning |
for |
because |
or |
one or the other of two alternatives is true |
and |
plus |
yet |
but at the same time |
nor |
conjoins two negative sentences, both of which are
true |
so |
therefore |
but |
shows contrast |
|
|
A deeper and thorough study of each conjunction,
however, reveals certain properties beyond the given straightforward account.
To illustrate, here are the other meaning and uses of and.
1.
As LOGICAL OPERATOR (the
truth-conditional meaning)
The entire conjoined statement
is true so long as each conjunct that makes it up is true. If one conjunct is
false, then the statement is false.
2.
As MARKERof many meanings
Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman
(2001) citing Posner (1980) provides these illustrations:
·
(and there . . .)
Annie is in the kitchen, and
she is making doughnuts.
·
(and during this time . . .)
Annie fell into a deep sleep, and
her facial color returned.
·
(and coming from it . . .)
The window was open, and
there was a draft.
·
(and after that . . .)
Peter married Annie, and she had a baby.
·
(and thereby . . .)
Paul pounded on the stone, and
he shattered it.
·
(If you give me your picture, I’ll give you
mine.)
Give me your picture, andI’ll
give you mine.
3.
As INFERENTIAL CONNECTIVE
A reader/listener can draw an
inferential connection from sentences like Susan jumped and hurt her ankle.
The use of and invites the listener/reader to seek some other implicit
relevant connection between stated conjuncts.
4.
As MARKER OF SPEAKER CONTINUATION
In conversational discourse,
sometimes a speaker uses and to signal that the utterance to follow is
in some way connected with what has come before. This particular use of and
goes beyond the usual content conjunctive use; rather it places and into
the category of discourse markers like oh and well.
Subordination
SUBORDINATION means putting less important ideas in
less important grammatical structures like dependent clauses. One means of
subordination is SENTENCE COMBININGorREDUCING.
Sentence combining
Melissa
topped the test.
Melissa was late by twenty
minutes.
Ø
Although late
by twenty minutes, |
Melissa topped
the test. |
dependent
clause |
independent
clause |
Reducing
Ø
Although late, |
Melissa topped
the test |
dependent
clause |
independent
clause |
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions do the job of connecting
dependent clauses to independent clauses. Shown below are different types.
Type |
Conjunction |
Type |
Conjunction |
time |
when, before, after, since, while, until, as |
conditional |
if, unless |
purpose |
in order to, so that |
reason |
because, since, as |
result |
so that |
concessive |
although, though, while, despite |
place |
where, wherever |
manner |
as, like |
Time Her father died when she was young.
Conditional IfI could afford it, I would buy a car.
Purpose They had to extend the session in order to discuss all concerns raised.
Reason I couldn’t ignore him because
he was my childhood playmate
Result She reviewed very hard so
that she would pass the LET.
Concessive While I did well in class, I was a poor performer
at club activities.
Place Wherever I stayed, I found troublesome neighbors.
Manner Is she often rude and cross likeshe’s
been this past week?
Relative
Clauses
Another form of subordination involves the EMBEDDING
of one clause within another. For example:
The lady came into the room.
The lady was small and slender.
Ø The lady [the lady came into the
room] was small and slender.
The lady who
came into the room was small and slender.
The most common relative pronouns which mark relative
clauses are: that, which, who, whom, and whose. Their uses are
presented earlier in the section on pronouns
PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are notoriously difficult for ESL
learners for several reasons.
1.
Several English
prepositions are realized as a single form in the learner’s first language.
Pumunta
kami sapalengke. (We went to the market).
Lumangoy
kami sailog. (We swam in the river.)
Sakalyeanggulo. (The commotion occurred on
the street.)
Antayinmoakosakanto. (Meet me at the street corner.)
2. The English preposition is not necessarily
realized by a single word. There are complex forms like because of and in
spite of or coalesced forms like into and onto.
3. Certain prepositions co-occur with verbs,
adjectives, and nouns to form clusters.
to substitute for to be afraid of
infavorof awareness of
4.
English
prepositions are polysemous. They bear varied meanings.
(space) Throw
the at the wall.
(time) It
rains at night.
(degree) Water
freezes at 00 C.
(idiomatic) She’s
good at dancing.
Meanings of Prepositions
1.
Many prepositions
prototypically deal with locating objects in space involving two or more
entities. One entity is for foregrounding, while the other serves as background. The former is the figure and the
latter is the landmark. In
Throw the
ballat the wall. |
||
|
figure |
landmark |
2.
Note the
following figure
|
at |
on |
in |
|
by |
↕ |
↕ |
↕ |
through |
with |
about |
|||
under |
over |
|||
|
from |
off |
out of |
|
Adapted - Dirven 1993
·
At, on, and in are the basic and most general place
prepositions. At denotes place as a point of reference, on
denotes physical contact between the figure and landmark, and in denotes
the enclosure of the trajector in the landmark.
They met at the
main gate.
Put the box on
the table.
The ball is in
the box.
·
From, off, and out of are source prepositions
involving the notion of separation from place.From denotes separation
from a point of orientation, off denotes separation from contact with
line or surface, and out of, separation from inside a landmark.
We walked from
the gate to the waiting shed.
The box fell off
the table.
Take the ball out of
the box.
·
By and with are proximity prepositions,
which locate the figure in relation to a point of orientation marked by the
preposition at. By denotes the idea of “connection” while with
denotes both a point of orientation and the idea of connection. In its spatial
sense, with can occur only with animate nouns as landmark.
He stood by me
in all throughout the campaign.
He rides withme
to our place of work.
·
Through and about require the landmark to the seen as a
surface or a volume and are positioned in the diagram above next
to in. Through structures space as a tunnel or channel. About
denotes spatial movement in any direction.
Move the other side of the mountain through the tunnel.
He walked briskly about
the yard for his morning exercise.
·
Under and over are vertical space preposition.
Under denotes a figure at a lower point than the landmark. Over denotes
a figure that is at a higher point than the landmark.
Don’t keep your shoes under
the table.
We watched the game over
the fence.
Selected Meanings and Uses of Common Prepositions
1. at (exact) We left at2:00 pm.
2. about (approximate) We left about 2:00 pm.
3. against (contact) to lean against the wall
4. around (approximate) around 2:00
5. by (nearness) bed by the window
(no
later than) by 2:00
6. from (source) paper is made from wood
7. of (before) a
quarterof ten
8. on (contact) on the wall
(day,
date) on Sunday, on November 8th
(communication) onradio,
TV
(concerning) a round-table discussion on language policy
9. over (spanning
time) over the weekend
(communication) over
the radio, TV
10. through (penetrate) through the forest
(endurance) through thick and thin
11. to (until) work from 8 to 5
(before) a
quarter to 11:00
(degree) He
is honest tosuch extent.
12. under (less
than) in under an
hour
(condition) under stress
13. with (together) He grew smarter with the years.
(equal standing
or ability) rank with the best
(manner) delivered
his speech with ease
Variations in Use of
Prepositions
1. spatial proximity a house near/by the lake
2. time/degree approximation cost about/around Php1,500.00
3. telling time a quarter
of/to ten
a quarter after/past ten
4. location along something the
houses on/along the river
linear
5. in a time period It occurred in/during 1901.
6. temporal termination studied from 8 until/till/to 5
7. location lower than
something below/beneath/under/underneath the
bed
8. location higher than
something above/over the piano
9. location in/at the rear of behind/in back of the cabinet
something
10. location adjacent next to/beside the cave
NEGATION
In English, negation affects words, phrases, and
sentences.
Forms to Express Negation
The following forms mark negation in English
(Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman, 2001.):
Affix-Negation |
No-Negation |
Not-Negation |
a- (atypical) dis- (dishonest) in/im/ir/il-
(inadequate/impossible/ irrelevant/illegal) non- (non-formal) un- (uncomfortable) -less (useless) -free (fat-free)
|
no (no plans) nothing nobody no one nowhere |
not, n’t (I cannot/can’t) play the piano.) never (not
+ ever) (My aunt hasnever left our town.) neither (not + either) nor (and + not) Neither his brothernor his sister helps support him in his studies. |
Negation at the lexical or word level
can simply use the negative affix. For example:
untidy untidily
impossible impossible
inadequate inadequately
illegally illegally
dishonest dishonestly
atypical atypically
Determining which affix to use is not always
predictable. However, the choice of im-, in-, il- or ir- is PHONOLOGICALLY
CONDITIONED by the consonant which follows it, i.e., im- is used if the
following consonant is bilabial (b, p, m), il- goes with a stem
beginning with l, and ir- with a stem beginning with r.
The prefix in- is the most common.
Nothing, nobody, and no one are indefinite pronouns while nowhere is an
adverb.
Other negative items include never (negative
adverb of frequency), nor (negative coordinating conjunction, and neither
. . . nor (negative correlative conjunction.
The
basketball players neveradmitted
their mistake.
The pre-schoolers can neither read nor write, nor can they comprehend
do mathematical computations yet.
At the phrase level, no can function as a negative determiner in a noun phrase.
No agreement has been reached yet.
No may also
be followed by a gerund as in no reading, no parking,
or no littering.
Not is used
before infinitive verbs to make the phrase negative.
She reminded her friendsnotto forget their bathing suits.
At the sentence level, not or its
contraction n’t is the main NEGATOR. This applies to different sentence
types.
(statement) Mgrs.
Palma is not/isn’t our teacher.
(question Are you not/Aren’t we meeting today?
(command) Do
not/Don’t laugh.
(exclamation) Was itnot/Wasn’t it exciting!
No and not
are negative substitutes. No can be a negative substitute for a whole
sentence while not for a subordinate
clause.
A: Is she coming with us?
B: No. She’ll do library work for an hour.
A: Is Pepito interested in the post?
B: I’m afraidnot. He’d rather be a plain member.
Are you joining us on Friday? If not, please let me know by
tomorrow.
Placement of not
1. Not usually follows the be-verb, whether functions as a
main verb (copula) or an auxiliary/helping verb.
(main) Surprisingly today, the birds are not noisy.
(auxiliary verb) I’m
wondering why they are not chirping.
2. Other thanbe, not follows the auxiliary verb if one is present or
the first auxiliary (modal, phrasal modal, or have) if there are two or more.
I cannot swim well.
The principal mustnot have been joking when he
said that.
We havenotbeenanalyzingthe
data since we received them.
3. With other main verbs, a do-verb is introduced before negation can take place.
The child swims in the pool.è The child doesswim in the pool.
The child doesnot swim
in the pool.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
Inverted and Uninverted Yes/No Questions
YES/NO QUESTIONS are often defined as questions for
which either “yes” or “no” is the expected answer. They are produced with a
rising intonation.
Yes/no questions are formed by inverting the subject and the
operator.
Lucy is your cousin. èIsLucy your cóusin?
She can speak fluently. èCan she speak flúently?
Shehasbeen
a consistent debater. èHasshe been a consistent debáter?
She loves (= does
love) to read opinion columns. èDoes she love to read opínion columns?
Yes/no questions may have a statement word order,
i.e., the word order is uninverted. This sentence, however, is likewise said
with a rising intonation.
2Lucy is your 3cousin3↑
2She can speak 3fluently3↑
Answers to Yes/No Questions
Yes/no questions usually take short answers using the
operator. The operator is underlined
below.
1. Is your sister fond of sweets? Yes, she is.
No,
she isn’t.
*Yes,
she’s.
2. Can you speak
Chinese? Yes, I can.
{No,
I can’t.
3. Are we supposed to attend? Yes,
we are.
No,
we aren’t
4. Have they eaten? Yes,
they have.
No,
they haven’t
5. Does the baby walk? Yes,
it does.
No,
it doesn’t.
If the sentence contains more than one auxiliary verb,
the short answer may also contain an auxiliary verb in addition to the
operator.
Will they have
joined? Yes, they will have.
No,
they won’t have.
If the second or third auxiliary is a be form, it is usually omitted.
Will she be able
to pass? Yes, she will.
No,
she won’t.
Negative Yes/No Questions
Semantic problems may arise for many ESL learners who
react to a negative yes/no question
in a literal manner in their language. This means that they agree or disagree
with the form of the yes/no question,
thus causing miscommunication.
Don’t you feel sorry? Yes (I don’t feel
sorry).
No
(I feel sorry).
Among native speakers of English, the expected response is:
Don’t you feel sorry? Yes, (I feel
sorry).
No,
I don’t feel sorry}.
Focused Yes/No Questions
While neutral yes/no
questions, as in the preceding cases, query on the whole state, activity or
event, this query can be more focused sometimes.
Does Álex plan a foreign trip with Melly? (or did someone else?)
Does Alex plán a foreign trip with Melly? (or did he only suggest?)
Does Alex plan a foreign tríp with Melly? (or is it something else?)
Does Alex plan a foreign trip with Mélly? (or is it with someone else?)
The focused sentence element gets the primary stress
as shown above.
Some
Versus Any in Questions
Some and any
can both occur with different question types depending on the meaning.
·
In open or
unmarked questions, any is used in questions as well as in negatives.
(question) Is
there any sugar?
(negative) There
isn’t any sugar.
·
However, some
is used in questions that expect a positive response, e.g., an offer:
Would you like some cold drink?
(encourages a “yes” answer)
·
Here are
questions to consider:
Is there some relief? (expects a “yes” answer)
Is there any relief? (neutral question/no special meaning
involved)
Isn’t there some relief? (Surely there is.)
Isn’t there any relief? (hopeful that there would be)
Is there no relief? (hopeful that there would be)
Other Functions of Yes/No Questions
1. Direct request: Can I borrow your notes on phonology?
2. Less direct request: Could I borrow your
notes on phonology?
3. Polite request: I
wonder if I could borrow your notes on phonology.
4. Offers or invitations: Would you like to have a cup
of coffee?
5. Commands Would you please pay attention?
6. Reprimands Don’t you have enough sense to do such a thing?
7. Complaints Have you ever tried using this gadget at
all?
WH-QUESTIONS
WH-QUESTIONS
are used to seek specific information so they are also referred to as INFORMATION QUESTIONS. Except for how,
these words begin with wh- : who, whose, whom, what,
which, where, when, why, and how.
A variety of constituents can be queried in awh-question.
Consider this sentence:
Liza
bought a beautiful house for her parents before she went to Canada.
Subject NP: Whobought
a beautiful house?
(Liza)
Object NP: What
did Liza buy?
(a beautiful
house)
Object of the For
whom did Liza buy a beautiful house?
preposition: (her
parents)
Who(m)
did Liza buy a beautiful house for?
(her parents)
Verb
phrase: What did Liza do
when she came home?
(She bought a beautiful
house).
Determiner: Whoseparents did Liza buy a
beautiful house for when she came home?
(her parents)
Adjective: What kind of house did Liza buy?
(a beautiful house)
Adverbial: Whendid Liza buy a beautiful house?
(before she went to Canada)
Adverbial: Wheredid Liza go?
(to Canada)
Wh-questions
elicit specific kinds of information.
What? The answer is non-human.
Who? The answer will be human.
Which? The answer is one of a
limited group.
When? The answer will be a time
or an occasion.
Where? The answer will be a place
or situation.
Why? The answer will be reason.
How? The answer will show manner,
means, or degree.
How much? The
answer will be connected with an uncountable noun.
How many? The
answer will be connected with a countable noun.
How often? The
answer will indicate frequency.
Forming Wh-Questions
If who, what, or which is the subject of
the sentence, it is followed by the normal word order of a statement.
Statement: Grammar
study is exciting.
Question: What
is exciting?
Statement: Those
big dogs chased the cat.
Question: Which dogs chased the cat.
Statement: Their
teacher gave a test.
Question: Who
gave a test?
Whom/who, what and
which as objects form questions by putting the wh-words first, and do,
does, or did next.
Statement: He planted fruit trees.
Question: Whatdid he plant?
Statement: Mothers bathes my baby sister.
Question: Who(Whom)
does my mother bathe?
Statement: The children catch yellow butterflies.
Question: Which
butterfliesdo the children
catch?
A modal (e.g., can)
cannot be replaced by do, does, or did. The do-verb replaces the
main verb.
Statement: My three-year-old sister canread.
Question: What can my sister do?
Social Uses of Wh-Questions
Certain fixed formulaic wh-questions serve
social functions (Celce-Murcia and Larsen Freeman 2001). Among them are:
Introductions: How do you do?
Greetings:
How are
you?/ How have you been?/
What’s up?/ What’s new?
Eliciting
personal reactions: How was the
test?
Making suggestions: Why don’t you seek advice?
How about a trip?
Responding positively Why
not?
to a suggestion:
Expressing exasperation: What now?
Seeking another’s opinion: How about you?/ What do you think?
Challenging another’s opinion: What for?/ How come?/ Since when?
Expressing perplexity: What to do?
Asking for clarification/expansion: What about it?