STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

 

LET Competencies:                          

 

·           Demonstrate understanding of grammatical concepts by being able to describe and analyse, meaning, and use of various English language structures

BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS

Below are basic patterns around which most English sentences are built.

 

1.     N be Adj

where the adjective is a SUBJECT COMPLEMENT, in particular a PREDICATE ADJECTIVE. The adjective refers back to the subject. The copula verbbe means “may be described as.”

                

                 Roses are sweet. (subject complement = predicate adjective)

 

2. N be UW (= uninflected word)

where the uninflected word is an ADVERBIAL such as here, there, up, down, in, out, inside, upstairs, downstairs, on, off, now, then, yesterday, and tomorrow. Be has the meaning of “be located” or “occur.”

                

                 The meeting was yesterday. (adverbial)

 

3. N¹ be N¹

where the superscript means that the two nouns have the same referent. The second noun following the be verb is also a SUBJECT COMPLEMENT, in particular a PREDICATE NOUN or PREDICATE NOMINATIVE.

                

  Her neighbor is my cousin. (subject complement = predicate      nominative)

 

4. N InV (= intransitive verb)

where the INTRANSITIVE VERB does not require an object. The verb being self-sufficient can stand alone with its subject.

                  

                 Glasses break.

 

5. N¹ TrV (= transitive V) N²

where N² does not have the same referent as N¹. N² is called the DIRECT OBJECT of the verb, “the receiver of the action.”

 

                 The girl buys yellow roses.

 

6. N¹ TrV N²                N³

where the superscripts 1, 2, and 3 indicate that each noun has a different referent.

 

Mother gave a gift to the orphan.

(usually reads as Mother gave the orphan a gift.)

 

Two noun objects occur after the verb. Still N² is the direct object and N³ is the INDIRECT OBJECT. If we omit the last noun, the pattern is identical to that in item 5. Note that the indirect object is preceded by the preposition to (sometimes for or of). If the two objects are inverted, the preposition disappears.

 

                 He made a toy house forher.

                 He made her a toy house.

 

                 The teacher asked a question of her.

                 The teacher asked her a question.

 

 

7.                           }N²

                        }Adj

}Pronoun

 N¹ TrV N²        }Adv (of place), uninflected

                        }Verb, present participle

                     }Verb, past participle

 

There are choices of different forms in sentence final position. These are illustrated as follows:

 

            (object complement) The class voted Henry secretary.

            (adjective)               The principal found the gardener efficient.

            (pronoun)                We considered the writer you.

            (adverb of place)     The teacher directed them outside.

            (present participle)  She saw them praying.

            (past participle)                 I imagine my father overworked.

 

The most common illustration of this sentence pattern is one with the occurrence of a final N².

 

NOUNS

 

Nouns can be recognized by means of the following characteristics:

 

1.     They are names of entities -- a person, place, thing, of idea.

 

2.     They have two INFLECTIONS, the PLURAL{-es} and the POSSESSIVE (sometimes called the GENITIVE) {-‘s}. Both inflections have various ALLOMORPHS

      /əz/ appears after morphs ending in sibilants or affricates / s, z, š, ž, č ǰ /

            /s/   appears after morphs ending in voiceless consonants / p, t, k, f, Ɵ /,

                   except the sibilants and affricate / s, š, č /

/z/   appears after morphs ending in vowels and voiced consonants / b, d, g, v, ð, m, n, ŋ, l, r. y, w /, except the sibilants and  the affricate / z, ž, ǰ /

 

3.     They may be marked by noun-forming DERIVATIONAL SUFFIXES added to bases or stems, usually belonging to other parts of speech, e.g.

·        added to verbs

{-age}    breakage

{-ee}      employee

 

·        added to adjectives

                  {-ity}   facility

                  {-ness}          happiness

 

·        added to other nouns

                  {-cy}    advocacy

                {-ian}    librarian

                  {-ship} friendship

 

4.     They fill certain characteristic positions in relation to other parts of speech in phrases and sentences.

·        just before a verb

 

              Red rosesbloom in my garden.

 

·        after determiners such as articles, demonstratives, and possessive adjectives, e.g.,  the examination, these reviewees, my handouts

 

5.     Unlike other languages, gender is not an important feature of English grammar. Gender is only marked in certain pairs of nouns, e.g., waiter/waitress, host/hostess

 

6.     Certain SUPERFIXES/STRESS PATTERNS occasionally identify nouns from other parts of speech as in: récòrd and rècórd. These two words are morphemically alike; however, we identify the stress pattern / ˊ  ˋ / as a noun.

 

7.     Nouns can serve as HEADS in a noun phrase. As heads they may be preceded by one or more single-word modifiers and followed by a phrasal or clausal modifier or both

 

thesmallstudytablein my roomwhich my father bought

 

Functions of Nouns

·     subject of verbs	Several items have ambiguous stems.
·     direct objects of verbs	They administered the test.
·     indirect objects of verbs	The lecturer provided the participants handouts.
·     subject noun predicates/ ·     predicate nouns	We are LET reviewers.
·     object noun predicates/ ·     object complements	The reviewees chose him their representative.
·     objects of prepositions	in our review class
·     appositives	The LET, a professional examination, is conducted every year.
·     vocatives/nouns of address	Anne, how did you find the exam?

 

Noun Types

 

1.     COMMON NOUNS refer to a kind of person, thing, or idea

·        COUNT NOUNS which take the plural inflection

·        MASS/NONCOUNT NOUNS which don’t take the plural inflection

 

2.     PROPER NOUNS are names for unique individuals or places

 

3.     COLLECTIVE NOUNS are able to take either singular or plural verbs forms, depending on the interpretation given to the noun, i.e., whether it is seen as a unit or as a collection of individuals

          The teamhaswon all its games.

          The teamhave won awards in their respective events.

ARTICLES

ARTICLES are a subclass of DETERMINERS, which are noun-marking words. They usually come before the nouns they modify.

	a/an (indefinite articles)	the (definite article)		no/zeroarticle
	Only before singular (sg) countable nouns (CNs)	Before uncountable/mass nouns (UNs) and countable plural (pl) nouns		Identifies certain indefinite meanings of nouns
1	Before an unidentified sg CN, one example of its class a chair (furniture)	Backward reference to a N already mentioned A dog . . . and here is the dog now.		Refers to all members of a class øDogs are domestic animals.
2	Before an unidentified sg CN that is representative of its class a dog (a domestic animal)	Forward reference to an identification soon to be made, often by modifiers following a noun The history of his town		Distinguishes one class from another øMen, not women, are protectors.
3	Before a predicate N after a be verb if no determiner is used . . . is a good neighbor	Before superlatives and before ordinal numbers, except ordinal numbers used alone (first in her batch) The best cake I have ever seen The first person to fly in space		Refers to an indefinite number but not necessarily to all members of a class. øSeedlings are beginning to sprout. (many)
4	With UNs to mean akind of, or withkind of, or certain a smile an insight	Content know to both writer and reader Thechapel in the village (only one chapel)		With plural nouns after be. His brothers are øengineers.
5	Before few and little to mean some but not many afew friends alittle salt	Identification of a class, especially in a generalization, followed by a noun, or an adjective The youth is the hope of the future. the physically challenged		With institutions and practices felt to be unique øOffices open at 7 o’clock. øDinner is usually late.
6	When using a proper noun to indicate the characteristics of the person named She is a Sister Teresa. (a saintly person)	Beginning of a phrase containing an appositive Interpret this item, the one with an illustration		With set phrases, usually pairs øHeaven and hell
7	To name “a certain person whose name is.” AMr. Alba came to see you.			With prepositional phrases At ørest, in ødanger, on øtime
8				With nouns used in headlines in newspapers, captions in books, signs, labels and the like øMURDERER ESCAPES BEWARE OF øDOG
9		For a family name in the plural TheBasas have arrived.	With common nouns used as terms of address and therefore capitalized. We are ready to go, øMother.
10		Distinguishes people who have the same name TheJessica Reyes who joined the beauty pageant is notthe Jessica Reyes who is my cousin.
11		When the article is part of a geographical name ThePhilippines TheUnited States TheRed Sea
12		When the article is accepted as part of any kind of proper name ThePhilippine Star The Princess of Negros The Hilton TheUniversity of St. Tomas The United Nations

 

PRONOUNS

Most pronouns stand for, refer to, or replaces a noun or a noun phrase within a text; hence, they occupy the same position as a noun or noun phrase does. The word or words that a pronoun stands for are its ANTECEDENT or REFERENCE.

 

My brother holds dual citizenship. He is not only a Filipino but also a Canadian citizen.

 

I and me stand for the speaker or writer.

 

I am a Filipino, but I am living in Australia now.

 

Pronouns can also be a direct reference to an outside situation (e.g., “What is that?” in response to a sound or noise).

 

Kinds of Pronouns

There are many different kinds of pronouns: SUBJECT, OBJECT, POSSESSIVE, REFLEXIVE, DEMONSTRATIVE and others. The forms within each category are distinguished by number (singular/plural), person (first/second/third) gender (masculine/feminine/neuter), and in the case of demonstratives, by number and proximity.

Personal and Related Pronouns

Person/ Number	Personal		Possessive		Reflexive/ Intensive
Singular	Subject Form	Object Form	Noun replacement	Determiner/ Adjective
+ I	I	me	mine	my	myself
+ II	you	you	yours	your	yourself
+ III
Masculine	he	him	his	his	himself
Feminine	she	her	hers	her	herself
Neuter	it	it	-	its	itself
Plural
+ I	we	us	ours	our	ourselves
+ II	you	you	yours	your	yourselves
+ III	they	them	theirs	their	themselves

 

Things to Remember:

 

1.     Animals closely related to people can be referred to by he, him, and his or she, her, and hers.

 

The dog loves his/her/its master.

 

2.     Use it and its to refer to inanimate objects except ships, which are always referred as she.

 

3.     Countries and schools are sometimes referred to by she or her.

 

4.     Traditionally, the pronouns he, him, and his have been used for mixed groups or groups in which the sex is unknown. Many people now object to this use, so they use both the masculine and feminine forms or the plural forms to avoid the problem.

Everybody submitted his or her assignment. (awkward)

All the students submitted their assignments.          (acceptable)

 

5.     If I, me, my or mine or their plural counterparts are part of a pair or a series, put them last.

The teacher confiscated his toy and mine, too.

Father helped Tony with his project, and he will help my sister and me with ours tomorrow.

 

Reflexive Pronouns

 

1.     Use the reflexive pronoun as the object of the verb form or preposition to refer to the subject of the sentence.

 

The baby is able to feeditself.

Luis cut himselfwith a razor blade.

 

2.     The phrase by + self or its emphatic form all by + self means alone or without any help.

 

I crossed the river (all) by myself.

 

Intensive Pronouns

 

The intensive form occurs directly after the word it modifies or at the end of the clause.

 

The mayorherselfdistributed the relief goods.

The mayordistributed the relief goods herself.

 

Reciprocal Pronouns

 

1.     The reciprocal pronoun forms are each other and one another. They mean that each part of the subject did the action and also received the action.

 

2.     They must be objects of verb forms or objects of prepositions.

 

3.     Some prefer to use each other for two people or things and one another for more than two.

The two finalists congratulated each other for making it to the top.

The class members prepared surprise gifts for one another during the Christmas party.

 

Demonstrative Pronouns

 

1.     Demonstrative pronouns occur alone. They do not precede nouns.

Thisis my favorite movie.

 

2.     Demonstrative pronouns can show distance or contrast not connected with distance.

 

(distance)    This is mine; thatis yours over there.

(contrast)     Which ones do you prefer, these or those?

 

Indefinite Pronouns

 

Personal	anyone anybody	everyone everybody	none no one nobody	someone somebody	another other ones others
Non-Personal	anything	everything every one	nothing none	something	another other ones others

 

Use singular verbs with compound pronouns and use singular pronouns to refer to them in formal writing.

 

          Formal:       Nobody brought his book today.

          Informal:     Nobody brought their books today.

 

Interrogative Pronouns

 

Who, whom, whose, which, and what can begin questions.

 

1.     Use who, whom, whose and which to refer to persons..

2.     Use what and which to refer to things and events.

3.     In formal writing, use who for the subject of a clause and whom for the object of the verb or preposition.

Relative Pronouns

 

1.     RELATIVE PRONOUNS (sometimes called CLAUSE MARKERS) introduce dependent clauses (also called RELATIVE CLAUSES). 

2.     Relative pronouns used in adjective clauses are who, whom, whose, which and that.

3.     Who, whom, and whose are used for persons while which is used for non-persons.

The guestwho came to dinner is the governor.

The bookwhich I bought is a best seller.

4.     That is a neutral form. It can be marked +humanor–human. In other words, it can be a substitute for both who (+human) or which (-human).

The guestwho/that came to dinner is the governor.

The bookwhich/that I bought is a best seller.

5.     In informal writing, whom is optional; in formal writing, whom must be used

(informal)Nora is the girl you saw in the party last night.

(formal)Nora is the girl whom you saw in the party last night.

6.     That, which and whom are the only relative pronouns that can be left out.

The instrumental music (that) I like to hear often is that of Zamfir.

The house pests (which) I hate to see are the rodents and the cockroach.

7.     Who, whom, and whose can be used in both essential/RESTRICTIVE and nonessential/NON-RESTRICTIVE clauses.

The man, who came to dinner, is the mayor. (nonessential/non-restrictive, bounded by commas)

The man who came to dinner is the mayor. (essential/restrictive, without commas)

8.     That instead of which is used only in essential or restrictive clauses, so do NOT put commas around clauses beginning with that.

The poster that won first prize pleased both the judges and the viewers.

*The poster, that won first prize, pleased both the judges and the viewers.

(*means ungrammatical)

 

9.   Use which in nonessential or nonrestrictive clauses. Separate nonessential clauses from the rest of the sentence by commas.

Our car, which has been running for three days, should be brought to the machine shop for check-up.

10. Relative pronouns used in noun clauses are that, what, whatever, whoever, 

      whomever, and whichever.

                   (noun clause as subject)  Whatever you offer will be appreciated.

(noun clause as direct      He will befriend whoever he gets

object)                                     acquainted with.

11. Look at the antecedent of who, that or which when used as subject to decide 

whether the verb following should be singular or plural.

                   The paintingwhichis exhibited is the painter’s masterpiece.

                   Thefarmerswhoown orchards earn much from their harvest.

 

VERBS

 

A verb can be recognized by means of the following characteristics:

 

·        Denotes an action (e.g., read) or a state of being (e.g. know). ACTION VERBS are dynamic. STATE OF BEING VERBS (or STATIVE VERBS) include the copula or linking verbs, e.g. the be-verbs, remain, appear, and become.

 

·        Has four inflections

{-s} of third person singular present tense verbs

{-ed} of simple past tense verbs

{-en} of the past participle

{-ing} of the present participle

 

The third person singular –s has the same allomorphs as the noun plural and the noun possessive.

 

The –ed past tense inflection has three allomorphs:

                    /əd/   after morphs which end in / t / or / d / as in planted, raided

 /t/      after morphs that end in voiceless sounds except / t / as in 

          brushed, jumped, walked

 /d/     after morphs which end in voiced sounds except / d / as in cleaned, grabbed, agreed

 

·        Follows a subject noun and may be followed in turn by adjectives

 

}______ eager [to enhance their knowledge].

The reviewees        }______ seriously.

                             }______ their handouts.

 

·        May fall under one more or more of these types

o   INTRANSITIVE VERBS which does not take an object (direct)

                   Flowers bloom.

o   TRANSITIVE VERBS which require an object (direct)

                   Flowers needwater and sunlight.

o   DITRANSITIVE VERBS which take two objects (direct and indirect)

                   Alexgavehis girlfriend three red roses.

o   LINKING/COPULA VERBS where what follows the verb relates back to the subject (subject complement -- a predicate noun or a predicate adjective)

                   Roses are lovely Valentine’s Day gifts.

          Roses are sweet.

o   COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERBS where what follows the object (direct) relates to the object

                             They chose Niña, muse of the team.

o   PREPOSITIONAL VERBS which requires a prepositional phrase to be complete

                   We looked at the pictures taken during our graduation

 

·        Have tense and aspect qualities. Tense and aspect have to do with form. TENSE is “the grammatical marking on verbs that usually indicates time reference relative to either the time of speaking or the time at which some other situation was in force” (Jacobs 1995). Time reference has to do with meaning. Events and situations are located in time, perhaps to our speaking about them, perhaps while we are speaking about them, or perhaps at some later time. English has three tenses – present, past, and future. The present and the past tenses have inflectional markings, while the future is marked by the inclusion of the modals will or shall. Simply put, tense is a set of verb forms that indicate a particular point in time or period of time in the past, present, or future.

 

ASPECT is a general name given to verb forms used to signify certain ways in which an event is viewed or experienced. Aspect can view an event as completed whole (simple), or whether or not it has occurred earlier (perfect aspect) or is still in progress (progress).

 

          Noel has attended the review classes. (perfect)

          Now he is studying for the LET exam. (progressive)

 

The tenses in combination with aspects make up the following 12 tense-aspect categories. These make up the traditional 12 tenses.

         

Tense-Aspect Combinations

 

	Simple	Perfect	Progressive	Perfect Progressive
	ø	have + -en	be + -ing	have + -enbe + -ing
Present	dream/dreams	has/have dreamed	am/is/are dreaming	has/have been dreaming
	eat/eats	has/have eaten	am/is/are eating	has/have been eating
Past	dreamed	had dreamed	was/were dreaming	had been dreaming
	ate	had eaten	was/were eating	had been eating
Future	will/shall dream	will/shall have dream	will/shall be dreaming	will/shall have been dreaming
	will/shall eat	will/shall have eaten	will/shall be eating	will/shall have been eating

 

Sometimes, if we want to draw attention to the time of the action, we use an ADJUNCT OF TIME, which can be an adverb, a noun group, or a prepositional phrase, e.g.:

 

       (adverb)                            She’s coming tomorrow.

(noun group)           Results of the examination were released last                               week.

       (prepositional phrase)        He will feel relieved after the exam.

 

VERB TENSES: Their Meanings and Common Uses

 

SIMPLE ASPECT: complete wholes; unchanging

 

1.  SIMPLE PRESENT: the present in general

·        To talk about our thoughts and feelings at the present moment or about our immediate reactions to something

I’m terribly busy.

He looks excited.

 

·        To talk about a settled state of affairs which includes the present moment

He lives in Sagada now.

Our teacher is very competent and considerate. We like her very much.

 

·        To say something is always or generally true

There are 24 hours in a day.

The earth revolves around its axis.

 

·        To talk about something that a particular person or thing does regularly or habitually.

I get up early to take a bath.

Every Sunday, I attend church services.

 

·        To discuss what happens in a book, play or film

In the movie, he plays the character of Juan Tamad.

In those early chapters, he keeps himself isolated to other people in the village.

 

·        To describe an event such as a sports match or a ceremony at the time it is happening as radio and TV commentators do

Doods takes the ball, then passes it quickly to Alfie. Alfie turns, shoots, and scores two points.

 

2.    SIMPLE PAST: Stating a definite time in the past

An adjunct of time or other time expression is necessary to specify the particular time in the past we are referring to.

 

·        To say that an event occurred or that something was the case at a particular time in the past.

The university officials flew into Jakartalast week to sign a memorandum of agreement with a sister school.

·        To say that a situation existed over a period of time in the past.

He lived in his ancestral home in the countryside during his last years.

 

·        To talk about an activity that took place regularly or repeatedly in the past, but which no longer occurs

We swam in the river a great deal in my childhood.

 

3.SIMPLE FUTURE: An expression of what we think might happen or what we     intendto happen

·        To say that something is planned to happen, or that we think it is likely to happen in the future

                   What do you think Ella will do to fix it?

 

·        To talk about general truths and to say what can be expected to happen if a particular situation arises

                   An attack of dengue fever can keep a man off work for a few days. He           will earn nothing and he have trouble paying his hospital bills.

 

PERFECT ASPECT: prior

 

1.     PRESENT PERFECT: the past in relation to the present

We cannot use adjuncts or expressions which place the action at a definite time in the past. But we can use adjuncts of duration, e.g. forever, always.

     *I have watched it the other day.

I ate raw vegetables, which I always avoided, and there was no other choice.

           To mention something that happened in the past but we do not want   to state         a specific time.

                   I have read the book several times.

 

2.     PAST PERFECT: Events before a particular time in the past

          To talk about a past event or situation that occurred before a particular time in        the past

                   By noon, students had gathered at the quadrangle with their placards.

 

3.     FUTURE PERFECT

          To refer to something that has not happened yet, but will happen before a      particular time in the future.

                   By the time he graduates, his parents will already have left for New               Zealand

 

 

PROGRESSIVE ASPECT: incomplete action; changing

 

1.     PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: Accent on the present

·        To talk about something that is happening at the moment we are speaking

                   I’m already feeling bored and hungry.

 

·        To emphasize the present moment or to indicate that a situation is temporary

                   She’s spending the summer in her hometown.

 

·        To indicate changes, trends, developments, and progress

                   He’s performance in class is improving.

 

·        To talk about a habitual action that takes place regularly, especially one which is new or temporary

                   She’s spending a lot on clothes these days.

 

 

2.     PAST PROGRESSIVE: accent on the past

·        To talk about continued states or repeated actions which occurred in the past

                   His body was trembling; his fever was rising.

 

·        To contrast a situation with an event which happened just after that situation existed. We use the past continuous to describe the first event and the simple past to describe the event which occurred after it.

                   We were standing at the main gate waiting to welcome the guest                             speaker. He arrived 20 minutes later.

 

3.     FUTURE PROGRESSIVE

·        To say something will surely happen because arrangements have been made

                   They will be sending their students regularly to the University for                           English proficiency enhancement.

 

·        To emphasize the duration of a recent event

                   She’s been crying bitterly.

 

PERFECT-PROGRESSIVE ASPECT

 

1.     PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

·        To talk about an activity or situation that started at some time in the past, continued, and is still happening now.

                   The economy has been declining in many parts of the world.

 

2.     PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

·        To emphasize the recentness and duration of a continuous activity which took place before a particular time in the past.

                   The old woman had been living alone in that dilapidated house.

 

·        To say that something was expected, wished for, or intended before a particular time in the past.

                   I had been expecting a phenomenal rise in his political career.

 

3.     FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

·        To emphasize the duration to an event at a specific time in the future

                   By January 2011, she will have been serving this university for 38                           years.

 

AUXILIARY/HELPING VERBS

 

1.     VERB PHRASE/VERB COMPLEX: consists of an auxiliary + a main verb, e.g., mustwork, have been reading, will be informed. The underlined word or words are the auxiliary or helping verbs.

 

2.     AUXILIARY/HELPING VERBS

 

A.   MODAL AUXILIARIES and their related phrasal forms

 

True Modals	Phrasal Modals
can, could	be able to
will, shall	be going to, be about to
must	have* to, have got to
should, ought to	be to, be supposed
would (= past habit)	used to
may, might	be allowed to, be permitted to

                   *The verb betakes several forms such as is, are, was, were, and  will             be.Havetakes the forms has, have, and had

 

§  NON-MODAL AUXILIARIES : be, do, and have verbs

Of all the auxiliaries, only the non-modals can change form.

 

Distinguishing Characteristics Between True Modals and Phrasal Modals

	True Modals	Phrasal Modals
1	Do not inflect, i.e., the forms remain unchanged canpass	Inflect like other ordinary verbs am/is/are/was/were/will be able to pass
2	Lack tense and a resultant lack of subject-verb agreement We can pass the LET. He can pass the LET.	Subject-agreement rule applies except the form used to We are able to pass the LET. He is able to pass the LET.
3	Do not require an infinitive marker to precede the main verb must study hard	Requires an infinitive marker toto precede the main verb has/have/had to study hard

3.     OPERATORS/OPERATOR VERBS

 

·        The OPERATOR is a verb that has three main functions: 1) It precedes the negative and combines with it when the negative is contracted to n’t; 2) It is the verb that moves around the subject to the sentence initial position in yes-no questions; and 3) It is also the verb that appears in the tag phrases of interrogative sentences or tag questions.

My father will not approve your marriage proposal.

My father won’t approve your marriage proposal.

Will your father approve my marriage proposal?

Willyour father not approve my marriage proposal?

Won’t your father approve my marriage proposal?

Your father will approve my marriage proposal, won’the?

 

·        When a clause contains no verb eligible to be an operator, do is introduced.

He attends the graduation ball tonight.

                   è      He doesattend the graduation ball tonight.

                   è      He doesnot attend the graduation ball tonight.

                   è      Does he attend the graduation ball tonight?

                   è      He attends the graduation ball tonight, doesn’t he?

 

·        If there are two or more auxiliary verbs present in the VERB PHRASE, the first auxiliary serves as the operator.

He has been reading the Obama autobiography.

                   è      Hehas not been reading the Obama autobiography.

                                  *He has been not reading the Obama autobiography.

                   è      Has he been reading the Obama autobiography.

He has been reading the Obama autobiography, hasn’t he?

 

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT/CONCORD RULES WHICH OFTEN CAUSE ERRORS

1. Collective nouns may take either a singular or plural verb inflection depending on the meaning.

·        Conceived of as one entity – takes a singular verb

Our school teamhas won its games.

·        Conceived of as more than one entity or refers to individual membership – takes plural verb

Our school teamhave won all their games.

 

2. Some common and proper nouns ending in –s, including –ics nouns and certain diseases are always conceived as single entity – take a plural verb.

                   The recent newsisexciting.

                   Mathematicsis repelling to many students.

                   Measlesisa contagious disease.

                   The United Statesis still a powerful country.

 

3. Titles of works even when plural in form are conceived of as single entitles.

                   The Ten Commandmentsis a beautiful movie.

                   The Syntax Filesis good reading for those in linguistics.

                   The song Greenfieldsbringsnostalgia to people of my generation.

 

4. Nouns occurring in sets of two take the singular when the noun pair is present but take the plural when pair is absent.

                   That pair of Lee jeans is expensive.

                   My glassesaremissing.

 

5. Fractions and percentages takes a singular verb inflection when modifying a noncount noun and a  plural verb when they modify a plural noun. Either a singular or plural verb inflection may be used when they modify a collective noun, depending on the speaker’s meaning.

                 More than half of the cakeis eaten.

                 Twenty percent of the studentsare not joining the field trip.

                 One-fourth of the audienceis/are teachers.

 

6. A number normally takes the plural. The number takes the singular.

                 A number of parents are coming for the meeting.

                 The number of signatories is substantial to merit approval of the motion.

 

7. When we use a number and a plural noun to talk about two or more things, we usually use a plural verb. We use a singular verb with ‘one’.

                 Seven daysmake up a week.

                 One solid evidence is enough to prove his dishonesty.

 

8. When we are talking about an amount of money or time, or a distance, speed, or weight, we usually use a number, a plural noun, and a singular verb.

                 Five hundred dollarsisa lot of money.

Three yearsisa long time to wait for a family member from abroad to come home.

Eighty kilometers per hour of travelis quite risky on slippery roads.

Seventy-five poundsis all she weighs now.

 

9. Arithmetic operations take the singular because they are perceived as reflecting a single numerical entity on both sides of the equation or equal sign.

                 Two plus twois/equalsfour.

 

10. The quantifiers a lot (of), lots of, and plenty of take a singular verb if the subject noun is noncount by plural verb if the subject head noun is plural.

                 A lot of sound viewswere advanced during the discussion.

                 A lot of nonsenseis evident from uninterested participants.

 

11. Traditional grammar states that when used as a subject, none (meaning not one) is always singular regardless of what follows in a prepositional phrase.

                 None of the boysjoinsthe mountaineering group.

                 None of the riceis eaten at all.

 

12. Traditional grammar maintains that the antecedent of the relative pronoun is the noun before.

Alice is one of the graduate students who havefinished her master’s degree in a short period of time.

 

13. For correlatives either . . . or and neither . . . nor, traditional grammar argues for a proximity rule, i.e., subject-verb agreement should occur with the subject noun nearest to the verb.

Either my friend or my classmatesareexpected to help me with my project.

Neither my classmates nor my friendvolunteers to lend support.

 

14. A singular noun or pronoun should take a singular verb inflection regardless of what else occurs between the subject and the verb.

Jimmy, along with his co-teachers, conducts a cleanliness campaign in the barangay.

 

15. In questions, subjects don’t always come before verbs. Identify accurately the subject before deciding on the proper verb to use.

Does your father usually go jogging?

What are the pages our teacher wants us to read?

 

VOICE

 

VOICE pertains to who or what serves as the subject in a clause. In the ACTIVE VOICE, the subject of a clause is most often the agent, or doer, of some action. In the PASSIVE VOICE, the subject of a clause is the receiver or undergoer of the action. The passive “defocuses” the agent. (Shibitani 1985 in Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman 2001)

         

The lifeguard savedthe child. (active)

          The child was saved [by the lifeguard]. (passive)

 

The passive voice is more limited than the active in that it requires only the transitive verbs – verbs that take direct objects.

 

The passive morphology is be . . . –en, i.e., a form of the be verb + the past participle. Usually in passive sentences the agent is not mentioned at all, referred to as the AGENTLESS PASSIVE. If the agent is mentioned (= AGENTED PASSIVE), it appears in a prepositional phrase marked by the preposition by.

 

Some passive sentences have no active counterparts.

 

          Justin was born in Canada.

 

Advantages of the Active Voice

 

1.     An active clause can give more information in fewer words.

2.     An active verb makes writing livelier and more vivid.

 

Uses of  the Passive Voice

 

1.     A passive construction emphasizes the result in an impersonal style. This use is sometimes desirable in scientific and technical writing.

A new strain of malaria was discovered.

 

2.     A passive verb emphasizes a victim or the result of a disaster.

Active: The child broke the antique vase.

Passive: The antique vase was broken.

 

3.     Use the passive when the agent or the actor is so unimportant or is obvious that you do not need to mention it.

Rica was born in Seychelles.

 

4.     Use a passive verb if you want to hide the name of the person who is responsible for an unpleasant decision or result.

An increase in tuition fees was proposed.

 

Forms of the English Passive

 

We usually form simple passives like these:

 

          Paper is produced from trees. (simple present)

Paper was produced from trees. (simple past)

 

Here are other possible forms:

1.     With modals

Paper can be produced from trees.

 

2.     With present perfect

Paper has been produced from trees.

 

3.     With present progressive

Paper is being produced from trees.

 

4.     With past progressive

Paper were being produced from trees.

 

5.     With be going to for future

Paper is going to be produced from trees.

 

 

PHRASAL VERBS

 

These are verbs which consist of two or three words. They consist of:

 

1.     a verb followed by an adverb;

            go up, spill over, and push through

2.     a verb followed by a preposition;

            come upon, reckon with, and bank on

3.     a verb followed by an adverb and a preposition

            break out of, look forward to, and go along with

 

Just like ordinary verbs, phrasal verbs may be used:

 

1.     intransitively

            Why don’t you speak up?

2.     transitively

            Let’s cut down pollution to conserve our environment./

            Let’s cut pollution down to conserve our environment.

 

Note that some phrasal verb may be separable. This is further explained below.

 

3.     both intransitively and transitively

            A plane took off.

            She took off her coat because it was warm./

            She took her coat off because it was warm.

Meaning of Some Phrasal Verbs

 

A two-word verb often has a one-word synonym, which is generally more formal. Here are some examples:

Phrasal Verb	Synonym	Phrasal Verb	Synonym
call up	telephone	give in/up	surrender
keep on	continue	leave out	omit
pick out	choose	put off	postpone

Separable and Inseparable Verbs

 

·        Parts of inseparable phrasal verbs cannot be separated. If there is a direct object, it follows the phrasal verb.

 

Look after your baby brother.

*Look your baby brother after.

Look after him

 

·        On the other hand, the object of separable phrasal verbs is movable. A pronoun object comes between the first and second part. A short noun object can come between the two parts or can follow the second part.

 

Donna turned it on.

Donna turned the light on.

Donna turned on the light.

 

·        Some phrasal verbs can be either separable or inseparable according to their meanings in a certain context.

 

She passed out. (fainted)

She passedthe brochuresout. (distributed)

 

The car broke down. (stopped running)

The polite broke the door down. (opened by force)

 

Separable Phrasal Verbs with Their Objects

	Object
back	it/the car	up
blow	it/the candle	out
	it/the balloon	up
break	them/the statistics down	down
	them/the negotiations	off
bring	it/the change	about
	it/the subject	up
burn	it/the building	down
	them/the papers	up
clear	them/the dishes	away
	it/the misunderstanding	up
close	it/the business	down
draw	it/the agreement	up
fill	it/a form	in/out
	it/the cup	up
find	it/the answer	out
give	it/this old bag	way
	it/eating candy	up
	it/the news	out
hand	it/the work	in/out
keep	them/expenses	down
	it/the radio	on
leave	it/the question	out
let	them/our friends	in/out
lock	them/the prisoners	up
look	them/our relatives in Manila	up
make	it/the handwriting	out
	it/a story	up
mix	it/food being prepared	up
	them/people	up
pass	it/the responsibility	on
pay	it/the money	back
	them/my enemies	back
pick	it/a new shirt	out
point	it/the problem	out

ADJECTIVES

 

An adjective –

 

1.     Is a word which describes or denotes the qualities of something

 

2.     Commonly occurs between a determiner and a noun, or after be or other linking verbs or immediately following the intensifier very

the _____ baby seems (very) _____

the hungrybaby seems (very) hungry

 

3.     Is associated with certain derivational morphemes

{-y}            healthy, leafy

{-al}            racial, normal

{-able}                  understandable, visible

{-ed}           aged, learned

{-ful/-less}  hopeful, hopeless

{-ish}          childish, boyish

{-ive}          active, native

{-ous}                  famous, marvellous

 

4.     Has inflectional morphemes for comparative and superlative forms

pretty prettier          prettiest

 

5.     Modifies or complements nouns

the honest man (modifier)

The man is honest. (complement)

 

6.     Has various types in terms of characteristic positions: ATTRIBUTIVE which precede nouns, and PREDICATIVE which follow linking verbs

The diligentstudents pass the toughexam. (attributive)

They arehappywith their high scores. (predicative)

 

Other Related Concepts

 

1.     Restrictive/Nonrestrictive adjectives

RESTRICTIVEadjectives are necessary for defining which noun is being referred to while NON-RESTRICTIVE adjectives merely add information without being essential for identification.

A concrete house. (restrictive)

My uncle owns a house, built of concrete materials. (non-restrictive)

 

2.     Polarity

POLARITY refers to positive and negative contrasts in a language.

          Positive polarity             Negative polarity

          big                                  small, little

          old                                  young

          long                                short

          good                               bad

          fast                                 slow

 

Adjectives with positive polarity are UNMARKED FORMS because they are used more frequently in a given language, learned earlier by children, and used in neutral contexts. Adjectives of negative polarity are MARKED. They are less frequently used.

 

3.     GRADABILITY

 

·        Adjectives can be placed in continuum of intensity, with the intensity increasing or decreasing depending on the intensifier chosen.

[Less intense]		[More intense]
Somewhat rare, rare, quite rare,  very rare,  extremely rare

·        Adjectives that can be compared are also called gradable adjectives. Comparative forms (adjectives marked by -er, more, or less) show differences/contrasts between two things or groups. Superlative forms (marked by –est, most, or least) show differences in three or more things or groups.

 

·        Comparison do nor apply to absolutes such as unique, possible, impossible, horizontal, round, square, and fatal. They can co-occur with words like nearly and almost.

              The accident was fatal.

The accident was nearly fatal.

The accident was almost fatal.

 

·        The as . . . as construction is used to show that two things or groups are similar.

Ella is as tall as her mother.

 

Order of Adjectives in Noun Groups

 

When two or more adjectives are used in a structure, they usually occur in a particular order or sequence as follows:

 

DET	opinion	size	shape	condition	age	color	origin	NOUN
many	pretty	small	round	chipped	antique	blue	Chinese	vases

 

 

ADVERBS

 

ADVERBS modify or change the meaning of other words such as verbs, adjectives, another adverb, or even a whole sentence.

 

(verb modifier)                         The athlete can run fast.

(adjective modifier)                  Sailboats are really beautiful to watch.

(adverb modifier).          The athlete can run very fast.

(sentence modifier)                   Perhaps, Nena’s family will give a party

 

Adverbs or adverbials vary in form as follows:

 

Adverbial clause:            The child cried because he was hungry.

Adverbial phrase:            Diane sang very sweetly.

Prepositional phrase:                She sang during our class reunion.

Word:                             We eagerly look forward to your graduation.

 

Adverbs can be readily recognized through certain affixes. For example:

 

1. Suffix –ly                    hopefully, popularly

2. Prefix a-                     aloud, adrift, anew

3. Suffix –wise                         lengthwise, clockwise

4. Suffix –wards             backward(s), forward(s)

 

Kinds of Adverbs

 

1. Adverbs of frequency: answer the question how often?

                                      (always, never, usually, rarely)

2. Adverbs of relative time        can be used with all tenses as meaning permits

                                      (just, still, already, lately)

3. Adverbs of manner               answer the question how? orhow well?

                                      (carefully, eagerly, clearly, quickly)

4. Adverbs of place                  answer the question where?

                                      (here, in the city)

5. Adverbs of time          answer the question when?

                                      (today, on April 15)

7. adverbs that emphasize         only and even

 

Where we put only makes a big change in the meaning of a clause. To illustrate:

(no one else)                   1. Onlyhe invited Alex to join the team this year.

(not ordered)                  2. He onlyinvited Alex to join the team this year this year.

(no one but Alex) 3. He invited only Alex to join the team this year.

(to join, not to do   4. He invited Alex only to join the team this year.

anything else)

(recently as or                 5. He invited Alex to join the team only this year.

at no other time)

 

Positions of Adverbials

 

While some adverbials are fixed in their positions in the sentence, others are movable. They can occur sentence initially, medially, or finally.

 

Sentence-initial:    Doubtlessly, we must conclude that the findings are correct.

Sentence-medial:  We, doubtlessly, must conclude that the findings are correct.

Sentence-final:      We must conclude that the findings are correct, doubtlessly.

 

Order of Adverbials

 

When two or more adverbials co-occur in final position in the same sentence, ordering should be observed.

 

{direction} + position↔ manner + time ↔ frequency + {purpose}

{goal       }                                                                      {reason}

 

He walks homeleisurely at 5:30 PMevery daybecause he wants to feel relaxed.

 

He walks homeleisurelyevery dayat 5:30 PM because he wants to feel relaxed.                

 

CONJUNCTIONS

 

Coordination

COORDINATION is the process of combining ideas. Two constituents of the same type can be put together to produce another larger constituent of the same type. Traditional grammar calls this process COMPOUNDING.

 

          Compound sentence:       The boys sangandthe girls danced last night.

          Compound subject:         The teacher andher students will join the parade.

          Compound verb:   The children playandeat during recess.

          Compound object: We boiled cornandcassava.

 

Conjoining like constituents as shown above is referred to as SIMPLE COORDINATION. Here are other ways of coordinating ideas:

 

1.     ELLIPSIS: Omission or elision of the first verb phrase in the second and adding the word too or either (for UNINVERTED FORMS), and  so or neither (for INVERTED FORMS).

 

Affirmative forms

My friends like to read storybooks and I, too. (uninverted)

A horse runs fast, and so does an ostrich. (inverted)

 

Negative forms

Donna can’t climb a tree, and his little brother can’t, either. (uninverted)

Ducks can’t fly high, andneither can chickens. (inverted)

 

2.     Use ofPRO-FORM, i.e., the substitution of pronoun for a repeated noun.

Luis plays the guitar andhe plays the harp, too.

 

3.     COMPLEX orCORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS like both . . . and..

My father is both kind andsincere.

 

Forms of Coordinating Conjunctions

 

Other than and, simple coordinating conjunctions include: for, nor, but, or, yet, and so. Note the following examples:

milk or chocolate

small but/yet terrible

He came late, so he missed the fun. (clausal)

They accepted the verdict, for they failed to counter the charges against them. (clausal)

 

Other forms of correlative conjunctions are either . . . or, not only . . . but also, and neither . . . nor. These pairs are used together

Either Tony orNico will top the test.

Anna is neither friendly nor generous.

Our teacher is not only competent but also very understanding.

 

Use of Coordinating Conjunctions

 

Below is a straightforward account of the simple conjunctions:

 

Conjunction	Meaning	Conjunction	Meaning
for	because	or	one or the other of two alternatives is true
and	plus	yet	but at the same time
nor	conjoins two negative sentences, both of which are true	so	therefore
but	shows contrast

 

A deeper and thorough study of each conjunction, however, reveals certain properties beyond the given straightforward account. To illustrate, here are the other meaning and uses of and.

 

1.     As LOGICAL OPERATOR (the truth-conditional meaning)

The entire conjoined statement is true so long as each conjunct that makes it up is true. If one conjunct is false, then the statement is false.

 

2.     As MARKERof many meanings

Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (2001) citing Posner (1980) provides these illustrations:

·        (and there . . .)

Annie is in the kitchen, and she is making doughnuts.

·        (and during this time . . .)

Annie fell into a deep sleep, and her facial color returned.

·        (and coming from it . . .)

The window was open, and there was a draft.

·        (and after that . . .)

Peter married Annie, and she had a baby.

·        (and thereby . . .)

Paul pounded on the stone, and he shattered it.

·        (If you give me your picture, I’ll give you mine.)

Give me your picture, andI’ll give you mine.

 

3.     As INFERENTIAL CONNECTIVE

 

A reader/listener can draw an inferential connection from sentences like Susan jumped and hurt her ankle. The use of and invites the listener/reader to seek some other implicit relevant connection between stated conjuncts.

 

4.     As MARKER OF SPEAKER CONTINUATION

In conversational discourse, sometimes a speaker uses and to signal that the utterance to follow is in some way connected with what has come before. This particular use of and goes beyond the usual content conjunctive use; rather it places and into the category of discourse markers like oh and well.

 

Subordination

SUBORDINATION means putting less important ideas in less important grammatical structures like dependent clauses. One means of subordination is SENTENCE COMBININGorREDUCING.

 

Sentence combining

          Melissa topped the test.

Melissa was late by twenty minutes.

Ø  

Although late by twenty minutes,	Melissa topped the test.
dependent clause	independent clause

Reducing

Ø  

Although late,	Melissa topped the test
dependent clause	independent clause

Subordinating Conjunctions

 

Subordinating conjunctions do the job of connecting dependent clauses to independent clauses. Shown below are different types.

 

Type	Conjunction	Type	Conjunction
time	when, before, after, since, while, until, as	conditional	if, unless
purpose	in order to, so that	reason	because, since, as
result	so that	concessive	although, though, while, despite
place	where, wherever	manner	as, like

 

Time                     Her father died when she was young.

Conditional           IfI could afford it, I would buy a car.

Purpose                They had to extend the session in order to discuss all concerns raised.

Reason                 I couldn’t ignore him because he was my childhood playmate

Result                   She reviewed very hard so that she would pass the LET.

Concessive           While I did well in class, I was a poor performer at club activities.

Place                     Wherever I stayed, I found troublesome neighbors.

Manner                 Is she often rude and cross likeshe’s been this past week?

 

Relative Clauses

 

Another form of subordination involves the EMBEDDING of one clause within another. For example:

 

          The lady came into the room.

          The lady was small and slender.

 Ø     The lady [the lady came into the room] was small and slender.

The lady who came into the room was small and slender.

 

The most common relative pronouns which mark relative clauses are: that, which, who, whom, and whose. Their uses are presented earlier in the section on pronouns

 

PREPOSITIONS

 

Prepositions are notoriously difficult for ESL learners for several reasons.

 

1.     Several English prepositions are realized as a single form in the learner’s first language.

 

                   Pumunta kami sapalengke.        (We went to the market).

                   Lumangoy kami sailog.   (We swam in the river.)

                   Sakalyeanggulo.             (The commotion occurred on the street.)

                   Antayinmoakosakanto.    (Meet me at the street corner.)

 

2.   The English preposition is not necessarily realized by a single word. There are complex forms like because of and in spite of or coalesced forms like into and onto.

 

3.   Certain prepositions co-occur with verbs, adjectives, and nouns to form clusters.

to substitute for     to be afraid of                

infavorof               awareness of

 

4.     English prepositions are polysemous. They bear varied meanings.

(space)        Throw the at the wall.

(time)          It rains at night.

(degree)       Water freezes at 0⁰ C.

(idiomatic)  She’s good at dancing.

 

Meanings of Prepositions

 

1.     Many prepositions prototypically deal with locating objects in space involving two or more entities. One entity is for foregrounding, while the other serves as background.  The former is the figure and the latter is the landmark. In

 

Throw the ballat the wall.
	figure	landmark

2.     Note the following figure

   

	at	on	in
by	↕	↕	↕	through
with				about
under				over
	from	off	out of

                                                           Adapted - Dirven 1993

·        At, on, and in are the basic and most general place prepositions. At denotes place as a point of reference, on denotes physical contact between the figure and landmark, and in denotes the enclosure of the trajector in the landmark.

 

They met at the main gate.

Put the box on the table.

The ball is in the box.

 

·        From, off, and out of are source prepositions involving the notion of separation from place.From denotes separation from a point of orientation, off denotes separation from contact with line or surface, and out of, separation from inside a landmark.

 

We walked from the gate to the waiting shed.

The box fell off the table.

Take the ball out of the box.

 

·        By and with are proximity prepositions, which locate the figure in relation to a point of orientation marked by the preposition at. By denotes the idea of “connection” while with denotes both a point of orientation and the idea of connection. In its spatial sense, with can occur only with animate nouns as landmark.

 

He stood by me in all throughout the campaign.

He rides withme to our place of work.

 

·        Through and about require the landmark to the seen as a surface or a volume and are positioned in the diagram above next to in. Through structures space as a tunnel or channel. About denotes spatial movement in any direction.

 

Move the other side of the mountain through the tunnel.

He walked briskly about the yard for his morning exercise.

 

·        Under and over are vertical space preposition. Under denotes a figure at a lower point than the landmark. Over denotes a figure that is at a higher point than the landmark.

 

Don’t keep your shoes under the table.

We watched the game over the fence.

 

Selected Meanings and Uses of Common Prepositions

 

1. at            (exact)                            We left at2:00 pm.

2. about       (approximate)                 We left about 2:00 pm.

3. against    (contact)               to lean against the wall

4. around     (approximate)                 around 2:00

5. by           (nearness)             bed by the window

                   (no later than)                 by 2:00

6. from                 (source)                paper is made from wood

7. of            (before)                 a quarterof ten

8. on           (contact)               on the wall

                   (day, date)            on Sunday, on November 8^th

                   (communication)   onradio, TV

                   (concerning)          a round-table discussion on language policy

9. over                  (spanning time)     over the weekend

                   (communication)   over the radio, TV

 10. through   (penetrate)            through the forest

                      (endurance)           through thick and thin

 11. to            (until)                   work from 8 to 5

                      (before)                 a quarter to 11:00

                      (degree)                He is honest tosuch extent.

 12. under      (less than)             in under an hour

                      (condition)            under stress

 13. with                  (together)              He grew smarter with the years.

                      (equal standing

or ability)              rank with the best

                      (manner)               delivered his speech with ease

 

Variations in Use of Prepositions

 

1. spatial proximity                            a house near/by the lake

2. time/degree approximation             cost about/around Php1,500.00

3. telling time                                     a quarter of/to ten

                                                a quarter after/past ten

4. location along something                the houses on/along the river

linear

5. in a time period                    It occurred in/during 1901.

6. temporal termination            studied from 8 until/till/to 5

7. location lower than something        below/beneath/under/underneath the bed

8. location higher than something       above/over the piano

9. location in/at the rear of                  behind/in back of the cabinet

something

 10. location adjacent                           next to/beside the cave

 

NEGATION

 

In English, negation affects words, phrases, and sentences.

 

Forms to Express Negation

 

The following forms mark negation in English (Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman, 2001.):

 

Affix-Negation	No-Negation	Not-Negation
a- (atypical) dis- (dishonest) in/im/ir/il- (inadequate/impossible/ irrelevant/illegal) non- (non-formal) un- (uncomfortable) -less (useless) -free (fat-free)	no  (no plans) nothing nobody no one nowhere	not, n’t (I cannot/can’t) play the piano.) never (not + ever) (My aunt hasnever left our town.) neither (not + either) nor (and + not) Neither his brothernor his sister helps support him in his studies.

 

Negation at the lexical or word level can simply use the negative affix. For example:

 

          untidy                   untidily

          impossible            impossible

          inadequate            inadequately

          illegally                 illegally

          dishonest              dishonestly

          atypical                atypically

 

Determining which affix to use is not always predictable. However, the choice of im-, in-, il- or ir- is PHONOLOGICALLY CONDITIONED by the consonant which follows it, i.e., im- is used if the following consonant is bilabial (b, p, m), il- goes with a stem beginning with l, and ir- with a stem beginning with r. The prefix in- is the most common.

 

Nothing, nobody, and no one are indefinite pronouns while nowhere is an adverb.

 

Other negative items include never (negative adverb of frequency), nor (negative coordinating conjunction, and neither . . . nor (negative correlative conjunction.

 

          The basketball players neveradmitted their mistake.

The pre-schoolers can neither read nor write, nor can they comprehend do mathematical computations yet.

 

At the phrase level, no can function as a negative determiner in a noun phrase.

 

          No agreement has been reached yet.

 

No may also be followed by a gerund as in no reading, no parking, or no littering.

 

Not is used before infinitive verbs to make the phrase negative.

 

          She reminded her friendsnotto forget their bathing suits.

 

At the sentence level, not or its contraction n’t is the main NEGATOR. This applies to different sentence types.

 

          (statement)           Mgrs. Palma is not/isn’t our teacher.

          (question              Are you not/Aren’t we meeting today?

          (command)           Do not/Don’t laugh.

          (exclamation)                 Was itnot/Wasn’t it exciting!

 

No and not are negative substitutes. No can be a negative substitute for a whole sentence while not for a subordinate clause.

 

          A: Is she coming with us?

          B: No. She’ll do library work for an hour.

 

          A: Is Pepito interested in the post?

          B: I’m afraidnot. He’d rather be a plain member.

 

Are you joining us on Friday? If not, please let me know by tomorrow.

 

Placement of not

 

1. Not usually follows the be-verb, whether functions as a main verb (copula) or an auxiliary/helping verb.

 

          (main)                            Surprisingly today, the birds are not noisy.

(auxiliary verb)     I’m wondering why they are not chirping.

 

2. Other thanbe, not follows the auxiliary verb if one is present or the first auxiliary (modal, phrasal modal, or have) if there are two or more.

 

          I cannot swim well.

          The principal mustnot have been joking when he said that.

          We havenotbeenanalyzingthe data since we received them.

 

3. With other main verbs, a do-verb is introduced before negation can take place.

         

          The child swims in the pool.è The child doesswim in the pool.

          The child doesnot swim in the pool.

 

    

YES/NO QUESTIONS

Inverted and Uninverted Yes/No Questions

 

YES/NO QUESTIONS are often defined as questions for which either “yes” or “no” is the expected answer. They are produced with a rising intonation.

 

Yes/no questions are formed by inverting the subject and the operator.

 

          Lucy is your cousin. èIsLucy your cóusin?

          She can speak fluently. èCan she speak flúently?

          Shehasbeen a consistent debater. èHasshe been a consistent debáter?

She loves (= does love) to read opinion columns. èDoes she love to read opínion columns?

 

Yes/no questions may have a statement word order, i.e., the word order is uninverted. This sentence, however, is likewise said with a rising intonation.

 

          ²Lucy is your ³cousin³↑

          ²She can speak ³fluently³↑

 

Answers to Yes/No Questions

 

Yes/no questions usually take short answers using the operator. The operator is underlined  below.

 

1.  Is your sister fond of sweets?         Yes, she is.

                                                No, she isn’t.

                                                *Yes, she’s.

 

2.  Can you speak Chinese?                Yes, I can.

                                                {No, I can’t.

 

3.  Are we supposed to attend?           Yes, we are.

                                                No, we aren’t

 

4.  Have they eaten?                           Yes, they have.

                                                No, they haven’t

 

5.  Does the baby walk?            Yes, it does.

                                                No, it doesn’t.

                  

If the sentence contains more than one auxiliary verb, the short answer may also contain an auxiliary verb in addition to the operator.

 

          Will they have joined?              Yes, they will have.

                                                No, they won’t have.

 

If the second or third auxiliary is a be form, it is usually omitted.

 

          Will she be able to pass? Yes, she will.

                                                No, she won’t.      

 

Negative Yes/No Questions

 

Semantic problems may arise for many ESL learners who react to a negative yes/no question in a literal manner in their language. This means that they agree or disagree with the form of the yes/no question, thus causing miscommunication.

 

          Don’t you feel sorry?                Yes (I don’t feel sorry).

                                                No (I feel sorry).

Among native speakers of English, the expected response is:

 

          Don’t you feel sorry?                Yes, (I feel sorry).

                                                No, I don’t feel sorry}.

 

Focused Yes/No Questions

 

While neutral yes/no questions, as in the preceding cases, query on the whole state, activity or event, this query can be more focused sometimes.

 

          Does Álex plan a foreign trip with Melly?  (or did someone else?)

          Does Alex plán a foreign trip with Melly?  (or did he only suggest?)

          Does Alex plan a foreign tríp with Melly?  (or is it something else?)

          Does Alex plan a foreign trip with Mélly?  (or is it with someone else?)

 

The focused sentence element gets the primary stress as shown above.

 

Some Versus Any in Questions

 

Some and any can both occur with different question types depending on the meaning.

 

·        In open or unmarked questions, any is used in questions as well as in negatives.

 

          (question)    Is there any sugar?

          (negative)    There isn’t any sugar.

 

·        However, some is used in questions that expect a positive response, e.g., an offer:

 

          Would you like some cold drink? (encourages a “yes” answer)

 

·        Here are questions to consider:

 

Is there some relief?                  (expects a “yes” answer)

Is there any relief?          (neutral question/no special meaning involved)

Isn’t there some relief?    (Surely there is.)

Isn’t there any relief?                (hopeful that there would be)

Is there no relief?            (hopeful that there would be)

 

Other Functions of Yes/No Questions

 

1. Direct request:            Can I borrow your notes on phonology?

2. Less direct request:     Could I borrow your notes on phonology?

3. Polite request:             I wonder if I could borrow your notes on phonology.

4. Offers or invitations:   Would you like to have a cup of coffee?

5. Commands                           Would you please pay attention?

6.  Reprimands               Don’t you have enough sense to do such a thing?

7. Complaints                          Have you ever tried using this gadget at all?

 

WH-QUESTIONS

 

WH-QUESTIONS are used to seek specific information so they are also referred to as INFORMATION QUESTIONS. Except for how, these words begin with wh- : who, whose, whom, what, which, where, when, why, and how.

 

A variety of constituents can be queried in awh-question. Consider this sentence:

         

          Liza bought a beautiful house for her parents before she went to Canada.

 

Subject NP:           Whobought a beautiful house?

(Liza)

Object NP:            What did Liza buy?

(a beautiful house)

Object of the                   For whom did Liza buy a beautiful house?  

preposition:           (her parents)

                             Who(m) did Liza buy a beautiful house for?

          (her parents)

Verb phrase:         What did Liza do when she came home?

(She bought a beautiful house).

Determiner:          Whoseparents did Liza buy a beautiful house for when she came home?

(her parents)

Adjective:             What kind of house did Liza buy? 

(a beautiful house)

Adverbial:            Whendid Liza buy a beautiful house? 

(before she went to Canada)

Adverbial:            Wheredid Liza go?

                             (to Canada)

 

Wh-questions elicit specific kinds of information.

 

What?                  The answer is non-human.

Who?                   The answer will be human.

Which?                 The answer is one of a limited group.

When?                  The answer will be a time or an occasion.

Where?                 The answer will be a place or situation.

Why?                   The answer will be reason.

How?                   The answer will show manner, means, or degree.

How much?          The answer will be connected with an uncountable noun.

How many?          The answer will be connected with a countable noun.

How often?           The answer will indicate frequency.

 

Forming Wh-Questions

 

If who, what, or which is the subject of the sentence, it is followed by the normal word order of a statement.

 

Statement:   Grammar study is exciting.

Question:    What is exciting?

 

Statement:   Those big dogs chased the cat.

Question:    Which dogs chased the cat.

 

Statement:   Their teacher gave a test.

Question:    Who gave a test?

 

Whom/who, what and which as objects form questions by putting the wh-words first, and do, does, or did next.

 

Statement:   He planted fruit trees.

Question:    Whatdid he plant?

 

Statement:   Mothers bathes my baby sister.

Question:    Who(Whom) does my mother bathe?

 

Statement:   The children catch yellow butterflies.

Question:    Which butterfliesdo the children catch?

 

A modal (e.g., can) cannot be replaced by do, does, or did. The do-verb replaces the main verb.

 

Statement:   My three-year-old sister canread.

Question:     What can my sister do?

 

Social Uses of Wh-Questions

 

Certain fixed formulaic wh-questions serve social functions (Celce-Murcia and Larsen Freeman 2001). Among them are:

 

Introductions:                          How do you do?

Greetings:                                How are you?/ How have you been?/

What’s up?/ What’s new?

Eliciting personal reactions:      How was the test?

Making suggestions:                 Why don’t you seek advice? How about a trip?

Responding positively                       Why not?

to a suggestion:

Expressing exasperation:          What now?

Seeking another’s opinion:                 How about you?/ What do you think?

Challenging another’s opinion: What for?/ How come?/ Since when?

Expressing perplexity:              What to do?

Asking for clarification/expansion:     What about it?

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