FOUNDATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES IN THE PRIMITIVE SOCIETY

·                    Participation in physical activities in the primitive society -PRACTICAL

·                    To carry on the demands of primitive life- Strong, agile, and powerful body

·                    Mimetic games provided children the opportunity to prepare themselves for adult life and responsibilities.

·                    Dancing- communication to their gods.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN ANCIENT NATION

Phoenicians,

·       Philistines,

·       Hebrews,

·       the Canaanites of Syria,

·       and the people of Egypt

·        and Mesopotamia-   Gave birth to civilization that marked a turning point in the history of physical education and sport.

PERSIA

·        primary aim of physical education=developing in their young men military skills, high moral standards and patriotism to strengthen and extend the empire.

·        The Persian boy (7-15) learns how to shoot the bows, sling stones, throw the javelin, bear extreme temperature, endure long marches, live on little food, swim across rivers while keeping their equipment dry       

 

EGYPT

·        Egyptians had popular physical activities although formal physical education was not included in the curriculum.

·        Egyptians hunt, trap and fish with the use of bow and arrows, spears, and harpoons.

·        Popular activities were swimming(civilization’s life was based on rivers,)

·        wrestling which was participated in by the nobility, the soldiers, the merchants, and the unskilled laborers,

·        gymnastic activities and games using the skills of fighting and war.

 

CHINA

·        Emphasis is on intellectual excellence    ( evidences that Ancient Chinese participated in physical activities)

·        National leaders were expected to be proficient in shooting the bow and horseback riding.

·        Military men were given examinations on lifting the weights, shooting the bow, and handling the sword.

·        They boxed, played football, practiced jiu-jitsu.

·        Sons of rich families engaged in music, dancing, and archery.

·        Recreational games and sports - early versions of soccer, polo, chess,

·        competitions in archery and wrestling 

·        Dancing was popular that a man’s prestige often depended on his skill as a dancer.

·        When ancient Chinese felt weak, Cong Fu, a mild exercises, similar to gymnastics-developed in 2698 B.C ( to prevent diseases and keep the body in good organic conditions.)

INDIA

·        Ancient India was as ancient as China’s. Buddha’s prohibition of games, amusements, and exercises did not totally prevent ancient India from participating in several physical activities.

·        Favorite of the people: throwing balls,  tumbling, chariot races, riding elephants and horse, swordsmanship, wrestling, boxing, and playing dice and marbles

·        Yoga, was popular. Unique activity involving exercises in posture, regulated breathing, to discipline the mind and the body.

·        Dances were used for ceremonies and religious observances.

·        Hindu dancing was considered the oldest of organized dancing.

 

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN GREECE

·        Physical education was a vital part of the education of every Greek boy.

·        Gymnastics and music were the two most important subjects – music for the soul and gymnastics for the body.

·        Gymnastics was believed to contribute to courage, discipline, and physical well-being.

·        Beauty of the physique was stressed and men and boys participated in the nude, which motivated development of the “body beautiful”.

·        Greek sport manifested itself in the concept of the amateur athlete,

·        whose primary goal is to compete in a “circuit”  major national festivals

1.     Pan-Hellenic Festivals-most important  event in the lives of the Greeks ( one major competition was held every year.)

2.     The Olympia Festival was at Olympia every four years in honor of Zeus.

·        Winners received  wild olive leaves.

3.     The Pythia Festival was held at Delphi at the sacred site of Apollo, the god of light and truth every four years and laurel for the winners.

·        The athletes competed as individuals not as a team, on a fervently amateur basis. Women were banned from the games.

 Spartan Physical Education

·        All Spartan citizens had only one profession – serve the country as a soldier and to be warriors.

·        The Spartan approach to physical training (not physical education)

·        Only the strongest and the healthiest babies are allowed to live in Sparta. Unhealthy ones were taken to Mt. Taygetus to die.

·        Popular physical activities were wrestling, swimming, and horseback riding..

Physical Activities in Athens

·        Physical education and athletic competitions was prominent feature of Athenian education.

·        Sport was associated with philosophy, music, literature, painting, and particularly with sculpture.

·        An ideal Athenian education was to achieve a proper balance in moral, mental, physical, and aesthetic development.

·        Athenian @ 6 yrs old-schooling in the palaestrae, (a building that provided rooms for various physical activities and for oiling and sanding the athlete’s body. )

·        Many activities were accompanied with music by a flute player. The PE teacher taught various activities, understood how certain exercises should be adopted to various physical conditions, and knew how to develop strength and endurance

Greek Philosophers &Teachers Who Contributed to the Worth of PE

·        Plato believed : gymnastics and music, is “physical education” and “academics” respectively.

·        Music educates the mind/soul; gymnastics educates the body.

·        His argument in his Republic is that the mission of physical education in the schools blends with movements.                                                                                                                                  

·        Aristotle believed : athletics enables youth to develop strong, healthy citizens who would defend Athens in time of war and serve her in time of peace.

·        Because the health of the mind/soul was contingent on a healthy body, physical education (gymnastics) was necessary to insure the health of the mind/soul.

·        Herodotus (Herodikos) used physical education as an aid to medicine as early as the 5th century.

·        Hippocrates proclaimed the law of use and disuse of the parts of the body.Muscle atrophy and weakness are results of disuse.

·        Xenophon thought of physical education as important in terms of military. Essential to success in life is soundness of the mind and body.

 

ROMAN PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES

·        War was the prestige profession of the Romans,which necessitated brutal methods for training the body.  

·        After the conquest of Greece, Greek gymnastics were introduced to the Romans, but they were never received.  .

·        The Romans did not believe in making the “body beautiful, and did not like the nakedness of the performers

·        The maintenance of health was a worthwhile and natural goal for the Romans.

·        The concept of health gymnastics was accepted quickly. Greek physicians were used to instruct Romans the benefits of health-related exercises.

·        In 476 A.D. The Teutonic Barbarians sacked Rome, conquered Ravenna and the Rest of the Western Empire.

·        It was the fall of the Roman Empire due to physical deterioration, moral decay, “Blood sport” games, and excesses that caused poor health.

·        the Colosseum was abandoned and left to decay.

Physical Education In The Middle Ages

·        The Christian church, particularly Catholicism which survived the fall provided a symbol of stability and order amidst chaos and fear through intellectual and spiritual leadership.

·        Although the Teutonic invasions supported the value of physical activity, two movements worked to its advantage – asceticism and scholasticism.

·        Asceticism had a belief that evil exists in the body and therefore it should be subordinated to the spirit, which is pure. With the exception of ritual dancing and manual labor, Christians were encouraged to avoid the pleasures and temptations of the flesh. The body is possessed of the devil and should be tortured. Such practices led to poor health.

·        Monasteries were built where Christians could isolate themselves from the world and evils.  Later, schools were attached to the monasteries and would not allow physical education to be part of the curriculum.

·        Scholasticism is a highly intellectual philosophy that emphasized the mind.  Although it was concerned with the development of the mental or intellectual powers, Scholastics still saw value of the body as part in the development of the mind. Instead of focusing on the differences between the mind and the body, they actually saw a close relationship between the two.

·        Between the 9th and the 14th centuries, people needed protection.

·        Chivalry emerged as a kind of education that was physical, social, and military in nature. There were three stages in the training for knighthood:

-as a Page – from age 7 to 13

-being a Squire – from age 14 to 17

·        Medieval tournament was the most famous of the war games. It was between two mounted horsemen who would charge each other with long, wooden lances to knock the opponent from his horse.

-         Melee was an event in the tournament where groups of opposing knights would engage in hand-to-hand combat with dull swords.

 

Physical Education In The Renaissance Period

·        Renaissance was a time of radical change in European culture. Europe experienced several vicious wars. Other than the wars, Europe was ravaged by the Bubonic Plague or Black Death due to poor understanding of hygiene.

·        With the emergence of the philosophy of humanism and its concepts of the “universal man”, physical education became more valued.

·        Good physical health was believed to promote learning .

·        The theory that the body and the soul were inseparable, that they were indivisible, and that one was necessary for the optimum functioning of the other became more popular.

·        A person needed rest and recreation from study and work.

·        The body is needed to be developed for purposes of health and for preparation for warfare.

·        Aeneas Silvio Piccolomini (Pope Pius II) believed that to prepare children to be good soldiers, He emphasized military skills and proficiency for Christians to defend themselves from the Turks.

·        Martin Luther’s physical education was a means of obtaining elasticity of the body, and a medium of promoting health, advocated music, games and dancing as acceptable pastime, and believed that people should engage in honorable and useful modes of exercises so they would not fall into vice and evil pursuits during leisure hours.

·        Thomas Elyot’s recommendations regarding games and sports came from the classics: running, swimming and hunting, and because he was familiar with the latest medical teachings of his time, he claimed six (6) physiological benefits that could be derived from exercise: aids in digestion, increases appetite, helps in living longer, warms the body, raises metabolism, and cleanses the body of its wastes.

·        Roger Ascham appreciated the value of exercise as a means of resting the mind to make it sharper at a later time, and believed that the necessary activities should involve riding. running, shooting a bow and a gun, vaulting, leaping, wrestling, swimming, dancing, hawking, hunting, and playing tennis.

·        Francois Rabelais believed that physical activities help the students reach his goal of being a well-rounded individual, these include horsemanship, martial arts, hunting, and ball playing, running, and swimming.

·        Richard Mulcaster’s book Positions dealt specifically to physical education: for indoors, he recommended dancing, wrestling, fencing, and climbing; for outdoors, walking, running, leaping, swimming, riding, hunting, shooting, and playing ball. He was considered the “father” of the modern educational practice  including sports in the schools.

 

Physical Education In Europe

·        Johann Bernhard Basedow founded the Philanthropinum in 1774. His younger students engaged in “Greek Gymnastics” contests, such as running, wrestling, throwing, and jumping;

·        Johann Christoph Friedrich Gutsmuths legitimized the P.E. profession. He believed in the promotion of people’s health to have a strong nation. Gutmuths is considered the real founder of physical education, and “grandfather of physical education”.

·        Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi believed that physical education could develop healthy and cheerful children, and believed that gymnastics promotes a spirit of union, brotherly association, habits of industry, openness and frankness of character, personal courage, and manly conduct when one suffers from pain.

Sport, Physical Education and Play in 19th Century America

·        When America experienced a cultural revolution in the 19th century, the American culture became increasingly urban and technical. Many Americans became athletes and spectators. Use of spare time for recreational activities among adults was less resisted. Attitudes toward sport changed as they changed the attitudes toward religion

·        The TURVEREIN MOVEMENT catalyzed the recognition of physical education as important to American society, thus, the TURNERS became the pioneers of P.E. in America.

·        Sport activities came to be seen as an effort to be a good Christian.

·        Physicality became a desirable image during the 1850. In the early 1800 – playful recreation tended toward games and less competitive activities.

·        Sport was distinguished from the activity of games and play. By late 1800 the concept of competition and sport became more prevalent.

 

Early 20th Century

·        According to a survey gymnastic programs averaged 15 minutes daily in the elementary schools and two periods weekly in the secondary schools.

·        Jessie Bancroft and Elizabeth Burchenal stressed the importance of intramural games rather interscholastic competition for girls.

·        Most institutions of higher learning provided some program of gymnastics for their students.

·        Intramural athletics gained more prominence.

·        Higher standards for teacher education in the field of physical education were established, and better trained teachers were produced.

·        Sports, athletics and team games became more important.

Golden Twenties (1920 to 1929)

·        More games, sports, and free play became popular.

·        Measurement in physical education was emphasized as a means of grouping the students, measuring achievements, and motivating performance.

·        Programs of physical education and sports continued to expand in schools and colleges. Elementary school and secondary schools PE program stressed formal activities; periodic lectures on hygiene were added in the secondary schools.

·        Stadium construction increased in the 1920’s.

Depression Years

·        Health and physical education had a difficult time surviving in many communities.

·        Physical educators became more involved in recreation programs in the agencies and projects concerned with unemployed persons.

·        The trend in physical education was away from the formal-type approach to an informal game-sports approach.

·        Intramural athletics continued to grow in colleges and universities.

·        Women’s athletic associations increased in numbers.

 

PE in the Philippines

Pre-Spanish Period

·        Physical activities were necessary for existence.

·        Cockfighting, introduced by the Malays and considered a favorite sport was a popular.

·        Dancing was a religious activity with several purposes and officiated by a priest or a priestess, who perform the sacrifice. War dances were performed.

.Spanish Period

·        Cockfighting continued to be a favorite sport

·        Dancing became a major activity enjoyed by the people.

·        The Fandanggo, the Jota, the Curacha of Spain; the Polka, and Mazurka of Central Europe; and the  Lanceros and  Rigodon of France were introduced.

·        Ceremonial dances were performed during religious activities.

·        Recreational games such as the juego de anillo, juego de prenda, and the duplo  were introduced.

·        Girls played sungka, siklot, piko, luksong tinik, and hide and seek.

·        Boys played patintero, sipa, and kite-flying.

·        Older women played card games.

·        1867 - There was   higher order recreational activities like horse races that triggered the founding of Manila Jockey Club to supervise the holding of races once a year, and was closed down in 1880.

·        There was no record of formal physical education in the schools except for gymnastics as reflected in the curriculum taken by Dr. Jose Rizal during his schooling at the Ateneo Municipal de Manila. In his autobiography, Rizal was frequently attacked by fever due to gymnastics exercises.

·        Room Gymnastics was made a subject in the curriculum from Superior Normal School for Women Teachers in Manila

·        In 1893, gymnastics was recorded to be a required subject for all candidates for the Elementary Teachers Certificate at the Superior Normal School for Men Teachers.

American Period

·        1901 – Physical exercise was one of the subjects introduced in the public schools, and regular program of athletics was developed.

·        1905 – Baseball and track and field were introduced and taught to young boys.

·        1909 – Athletic program for the schools emphasized the playing of western sports and coaching of tennis.

·        1910 – Basketball was first introduced as a game for young girls at the Carnival Meet held in  Manila but was later discontinued in 1914 because it was found very strenuous for the  girls. Later, indoor baseball, tennis, and volleyball were introduced.

·        1911 – The “Athletic Handbook” was published by the Bureau of Education where the first part  prescribed few simple games and relays; the second part contained the rules for   baseball, basketball for girls, volleyball, indoor baseball, track and field, and lawn tennis.   

·        1914 – In cognizant to the implementation of the “play for everybody” policy of the Bureau of Education, the Teacher’s Vacation Assembly started in Manila to give special training to Filipino teachers to be able to conduct various physical activities, and in turn recipients of the special training taught at the provincial normal schools

·        March 5, 1919 – A syllabus entitled “Physical education: A Manual for Teachers” was published

·        1920 – Physical Education was made a required subject in all public schools. A rating of 75%

·        which was based on attendance in the required exercises is necessary for promotion every year from grade four to fourth year high school.

·        1928 – A Summer School for Coaching was opened by the Office of the National Physical Education Director in cooperation with the  Bureau of Education to help the public school teachers who are in-charged  of athletics to improve their coaching methods.

·        1937 – Physical Education was made a curricular subject in the secondary schools where the grade was not only based on attendance but in proficiency in skills as well. The grade   was included in the computation of the general average.

·        1938 – The Summer School of Physical Education was opened by the Bureau of Education under the direction of Serafin Aquino, and was held at the Rizal Memorial Field.

·        1939 – Women’s track and field was added in the program of the National Inter-Scholastics. 

 Japanese Period

·        The Japanese Military Administration obliged all public schools to perform daily calisthenics on air called the Radio Taiso, where Japanese instructors were provided. The demonstration of the exercise was held in Luneta.

·        The 1989 Secondary Education Development Program (SEDP) is a response to continue pupil development started by the Program for Decentralized Educational Development in 1982. Based on DECS Order No. 11, s. 1989, the New Secondary Education Curriculum (NSEC) of SEDP is cognitive-affective-manipulative-based and is student-centered and community-oriented. One of the 8 subject areas in the NSEC is Physical Education, Health and Music (PEHM).

·        In the elementary based on DECS Order No. 53, s. 1994, it states that Physical Education in Grades I and II shall be listed as a separate additional subject and will be taught daily for 20 minutes beginning school year 1994 – 1995 in public elementary schools. It shall continue to be taught as a component of MAPE in Grades III to VI.

THE PHILIPPINE SPORTS COMMISSION

·        The Philippine Sports Commission (PSC) was created through Republic Act No. 6847 in 1990 to serve as the “sole policy-making and coordinating body of all amateur sports development programs and instructions in the Philippines”.

·        Function:    To provide the leadership, formulate the policies and set the priorities and directions of all national sports promotion and development, particularly giving emphasis on grassroots participation.

THE PHILIPPINE OLYMPIC COMMITTEE

·        The Philippine Olympic Committee-the umbrella organization of all national sports associations (NSAs

·        Function:    It is primarily responsible for activities pertaining to the country’s participation in the Olympic Games, Asian Games, Southeast Asian Games, and other international athletic competitions in accordance respectively with the rules of the International Olympic Committee, the Olympic Council of Asia, the Southeast Asian Games Federation, and other international sports bodies.

 

Philippine Participation in the Olympics (1924 – 2000)

·        The Philippines was represented for the first time in the World Olympics. It was a two-man delegation sent by the Philippine Amateur Athletic Federation in the 1924 VIIIth Olympiad in Paris. David Nepomuceno, a Philippine scout competed in the 100 m. and 200 m. dash and was eliminated in the trial heats. Dr. Regino R. Ylanan was the representative official and coach. 

·        1928 (Amsterdam) Teofilo Yldefonso, bronze, 200m backstroke

·        1932 (Los Angeles)         Teofilo Yldefonso, bronze, 200m backstroke

·        Simeon Toribio, bronze, high jump

·        Jose Villanueva, bronze, boxing bantamweight

·        1964 (Tokyo)                 Anthony Villanueva, silver, boxing featherweight

·        1988 (Seoul)                   Leopoldo Serrantes, bronze, boxing flyweight

·        Arianne Cerdeña, gold, bowling, demonstration sport

·        1992 (Barcelona)   Roel Velasco, bronze, boxing lightweight

·        Bea Lucero and Stephen Fernandez, bronze medals, taekwondo, demonstration sport

·        1996 Atlanta)                  Mansueto Velasco, silver, boxing lightweight, bronze, 400m hurdles

MEDALS and HONORS

·        Efren “Bata” Reyes was dubbed as “The magician” when he became the 1985 Red 9-Ball Open champion for his ability to execute brilliant shots.

·        Eric Buhain – bronze medalist in swimming in the 1990 Beijing Asian Games.

·        Eugene Torre became Asia’s first grandmaster at the age of 22.

·        Elma Muros was the only track athlete who won in different events in the Southeast Asian Games. She was hailed as the Southeast Asian games heptathlon queen in 1997.

·        Francisco Pancho Villa Guilledo was Asia’s first world champion in boxing and dubbed as the greatest flyweight of the century.

·        Gabriel “Flash” Elorde was dubbed as the greatest Filipino boxer of all time.

·        Gerald Rosales was an Asian Games silver medalist and Southeast Asian Games two-time champion in golf.

·        Jennifer Rosales was a five-time champion in golf in the ladies’ Amateur open (1994-1998) before she turned professional.

·        Lydia de Vega was Asia’s fastest woman in the 1980s. She brought home the gold medal twice in arrow in the Asian Games in the 100-meter dash and the silver medal in the 200m run.

·        Manny Pacquiao won the International Boxing Federation super bantamweight championship at the age of 23.

·        MikeeCojuangco-Jaworski is the accomplished equestrienne who bagged the gold medal for the Individual Show jumping competition in the 2002 Asian Games.

·        Paeng Nepomuceno is an all-time greatest international bowler with six world championships to his credit; some considered him as the greatest Filipino athlete of all time for making it to the Guiness Book of World Records.

·        Ramon Fernandez was the Philippine Basketball Association’s first four-time Most Valuable player and played in the league for a record of 20 seasons.

·        Robert Jaworski was one the Philippine Basketball Association’s 25 greatest players of all time. At his time of retirement, he was the oldest professional basketball player in the world.

·        Toni Leviste was a delegate to the 2000 Sydney Olympics and part of the Philippine Team that won silver medal in the 2002 Asian Games show jumping competition.

·        Alvin Patrimonio was a four-time Philippine Basketball Association Most valuable Player, two of which were won back-to-back in 1993 and 1994.

·        Bong Coo made her mark in the bowling world when she delivered nine consecutive strikes in 1979. Carlos Loyzaga led the Philippine Team that won bronze medal in the 1954 World Basketball Championship and four golds.

·        Dorothy Delasin is the Filipina who has become the youngest Ladies’ Professional Golf Association Champion in the last 25 years.

 

THE ASIAN GAMES

·        The Asian Games are held for the purpose of developing intercultural knowledge and friendship within Asia. The member countries and regions affiliated to the Olympic Council of Asia participate in this multi-sports event. The Games are held every four years in between the Olympic Games. This was first conceived in 1950, and the first Asian Games were held in New Delhi, India in 1951 with its motto Ever Onward. The 2nd Asian Games was held in Manila in 1954.

THE SOUTHEAST ASIAN GAMES

·       The South East Asian Games were known as the South East Asian peninsular Games until 1975.  When SEAP Games Federation accepted Indonesia and the Philippines as members, the name was then changed to South East Asian (SEA) Games. Its aim is to promote cooperation, understanding and good relations among countries in the region. It was all started since 1957 by Luang Sukhumnaipradit, the then Vice President of the Thai Olympic Committee. His efforts culminated in the first SEAP Games held in Thailand in 1959.

·        The intention of the SEA Games is to rotate the hosts alphabetically by nation name which removes the politics of bidding for the games, and allows the host countries ample time to plan for their turn at the games. Manila has hosted the 1981, 1991, and 2005 SEA Games.

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

BRANCH	FOCUS	General Questions	Questions Relative to physical Education and Sport
Metaphysics	Nature of reality	What is the meaning of existence? What is real?	What experiences in a physical education program will better enable the individual to meet the challenges of the real world?
Epistemology	Nature of knowledge and methods of obtaining knowledge	What is true?	What is the validity of the knowledge pertaining to physical activity and its influence on the development of the individual/
Logic	Systematic and orderly reasoning	What is the method of reasoning that will lead to the truth?	What process should a researcher use to determine the value of physical education to program participants?
Axiology	Aims and values of society	How do we determine what has value, and on what criteria are this judgment based?	What is the value of physical education programs to the individual?
Ethics	Issues of conduct, right and wrong	What is the highest standard of behavior each person should strive to attain?	How can sport be utilized to develop ethics?
Aesthetics	Nature of beauty and art	What is beauty?	Why are skilled performer’s movements beautiful to view?

   

Idealism and Physical Education

·        Physical education involves more than physical.

·        Emphasis is on the development of the mind and thought processes although the mind and the body are to develop as one.

·        Physical fitness and activities are valued for their contribution to the development of one’s personality.

·        Ideals are emphasized in the physical education and sport programs.

·        The activities should give students the opportunity to develop the qualities of honesty, courage, creativity, and sportsmanship.

·        The teacher is a role model in terms of character and values.

·        Self-development is emphasized.

Realism and Physical Education

·        One who possesses a physically fit body is the one who may be productive in society.

·        Physical education and sport are valuable  because of its contribution to health.

·        Programs are based on scientific knowledge and orderly progression.

·        Activities are selected on the basis of scientific evidences from a study of anatomy, kinesiology, and physiology.

·        Drills are used extensively.

·        Learning is evaluated objectively.

·        The emphasis on teaching is on fundamentals of games and activities with each skill broken down into its component parts.

·        Physical education should focus on the total development of the child.

Naturalism and Physical Education

·        Physical activity is the main source of the total development of the individual.

·        Individualized learning through self-activity leads to the attainment of individual goals.

·        Play as a natural activity common to all children should be encouraged because, it is satisfying, healthy, and a source of pleasure.

·        Highly competitive performance between individuals is discouraged; competition against oneself is encouraged.

Pragmatism and Physical Education

·        Variety of activities is presented for meaningful experiences.

·        Activities are socializing in nature.

·        Expression of ability, feelings and wishes are encouraged both in drawing up the physical education programs and in executing it.

·        The curriculum should be based on the needs and interests of the students.

·        The child share in planning the physical education program.

Existentialism and Physical Education

·        Within the curriculum, the student is free to choose from the variety of activities.

·        The activities provide the students opportunities to develop self-awareness and self-responsibility.

·        The program is as diverse as the students who are involved in it.

·        The teacher is a counselor who promotes reflective thinking while allowing the students to make choices, and deal responsibly with the consequences of those choices.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Stages of Learning

          As the student learns motor skills and makes a transition from unskilled to skilled performer, he progresses through several stages. At each stage the physical educator must be cognizant of the characteristics of the learner to plan for instruction. Different instructional strategies and techniques are required at each stage to make practice more effective.

·        Cognitive Stage. During this stage the learner is endeavoring to understand the nature and/or goal of the activity to be learned.

·        Associative Stage. At this point the basics of the skill have been learned and the learner concentrates on refining the skill. During this stage the learner works on mastering the timing needed for the skill. the performance looks smoother, fewer errors are committed, and the same type of error tends to recur.

·        Autonomous Stage. This stage is reached after much practice. the learner can perform the skill consistently with few errors. the skill is well coordinated and may appear to be performed effortlessly. During this stage the skill has become almost automatic.     

Individuals do not proceed through these stages at the same rate.  Other than knowing  the characteristics and the needs of the learner in various stages, the physical education teacher needs to be aware of the forces that influence learning.

Forces Influencing Learning

·        Readiness. successful acquisition of new information or skills depends on the individual’ readiness. Physiological readiness is the learner’s readiness to control his body in physical activities to such a degree. Psychological readiness refers to the learner’s state of mind; it is one’s feeling or attitude toward learning a particular skill. The desire and willingness to learn will affect his acquisition of that particular skill.

·        Level of Development. As psychologist Piaget stated, “learning proceeds most rapidly when instructional experiences are geared to individual’s physical and intellectual abilities.  In order for physical educators to follow this advice, they must understand intellectual, affective and motor development. Motor development  is the study of the origins of and changes in movement behavior throughout lifespan.

·        Motivation. It refers to a condition within an individual that initiates activity directed toward a goal. Needs and drives form the basic framework for motivation.

·        Reinforcement. It is using events, actions, and behavior to increase the likelihood of a certain response (e.g., a skill or a behavior) recurring. For reinforcement to be effective it must be meaningful to, important to, or desired by the recipient.

·        Individual differences. In any learning situation, the physical educator must provide for individual differences – in social and economic backgrounds, physical abilities, intelligence and preferred learning styles, and personality.

At this point it will be helpful to consider additional concepts, factors, and conditions that promote learning of motor skills and improve performance.

Concepts, Factors, and Conditions that Promote the Learning of Motor Skills and improve Performance

·        To promote optimal conditions for learning, practice sessions should be structured.

·        The task to be learned must be understood by the learners.

·        To be considered when designing practice is the nature of the skill.

·        In deciding whether to teach the skill by the whole or by part method, the nature of the task and the background of the learner should be considered.

PLAY THEORISTS

·        Herbert Spencer believed that play could be used to expend excess energy, which was necessary for survival.

·        G. Stanley Hall viewed play and its natural extensions (games and sport) as ideal mechanisms of development, an ideal type of exercise for the young, most favorable for the growth, and most self-regulating.

·        John Dewey believed that play was not a physical act that has no meaning, rather it was an activity the integrated mind and body.

SOME THEORIES OF PLAY

Surplus-Energy or Spencer Theory expresses the idea of play as the aimless expenditure of exuberant energy. (Friedrich Schiller)

Recreation Theory emphasizes the recreative values of play, and play as a means of revitalization. (Guts Muths)

Relaxation Theory is similar to recreation theory in many ways. Play is a medium for relaxation in today’s mode of work that leads to nervous disorders if the organism does not have a means to relax from the work’s ordeal.

Physical education should help each individual inculcate -

·        Moral responsibilities

·        Cooperation

·        Moral equality

·        Happiness

·        Spiritual enrichment,

After becoming a member of a group, certain collections are important for successful adjustments.

-Need for affection – the belief that he is liked by the other members

-Belongingness – the belief that he is accepted

-Independence – exemplifies the individual’s right to make his own decisions.

-Social approval and Opportunity to Maintain Self-Esteem

 

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