THE READER
Reading
Can be defined in many different ways.
·
Is a process of putting meaning to the text.
·
Is a process of getting meaning from the text.
·
Is a psycholinguistic guessing game.
·
Is the key to unlock the world of enlightenment.
·
Is the basic tool for learning in all areas.
·
Common to all definitions above is the concept
of meaning. Reading and reading comprehension are inseparable.
Developmental
· Reading as a task is different from learning to walk or talk (upon maturation they will naturally develop). Reading is learned in a different way. Many factors should be considered like mental ability, environmental stimulations, etc.
·
Developmental in a sense that reading skills are
developed from simple to complex, from the early part of life until adulthood.
Purposes of Reading
·
Informational Reading
·
Recreational/Pleasure Reading
·
Functional Reading or Public Use
The three
main groups of reading theories
· Bottom-up of – depicts reading starting with the input of some graphic signals or stimulus. The role of the reader is to get meaning from the text based on the stimulus or the words used. This is also called data-driven processing.
The three main groups of reading theories
Top-down of – depicts reading beginning with the cognitive processes occurring in the reader’s mind as he or she reads. The role of the reader is to give meaning to the text based on the information already held within the reader’s store of prior knowledge. This is also called concept-driven processing.
Interactive of
– depicts reading as the process of constructing meaning through the dynamic
interaction among the reader’s existing knowledge, the information suggested by
the written language, and the context of the reading situation
Scrambled, Jumbled Words and Language Recognition Theory
Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn’t
mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are,the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht
the frist and lsat ltteer be at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a total mses
and you can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid
deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe. Amzanig huh?
Stages of Reading Development
Stage One. Emergent
Literacy
(Birth to Five Years)
·
learn primarily through direct sensory contact
and physical manipulation perception-based conclusions
·
experience difficulty putting experiences into words
·
rapid language growth
·
explore writing in the form of scribbles,
letter-like forms, or invented spelling
·
egocentric
·
love being read to and cannot hear their favorite
tales often enough
·
have poorly developed concept of causation
·
like the elements of rhyme, repetition, and alliteration
Stage 2. Early Reading
(Kindergarten and First
Grade)
·
manipulate objects and ideas mentally
·
can reason logically
·
have difficulty comprehending underlying principles
·
have evolving grasp of the alphabetic principle
Stage Three. Growing
Independence
(Grades Two and Three)
·
Develop evolving fluency
·
Extensive reading of both fiction and nonfiction
·
Become more appreciative of stories involving
the lives of others
·
Judge their reading affectively and personally rather
than by using standards
·
May have difficulty explaining why they like a selection.
Stage Four. Reading to
Learn
(Grades Four through
Six)
·
wide application of word-attack and comprehension
skills
·
much greater emphasis is placed on grasping
informational text
·
vocabulary and conceptual load increase significantly
·
words in listening vocabulary
Step 5. Abstract
Reading
(Grades Seven and Up)
·
they can construct multiple hypotheses
·
evaluations of readings become more elaborate
and reflect an evolving set of standards for judging
Stages of Reading Dev’t
(Other Model)
Stage 0 Prereading
·
Oral language development
Stage 1 Initial
Reading
·
Letters represent sounds
·
Sound-spelling relationships
Stage 2 Confirmation
and Fluency
·
Decoding skills
·
Fluency
·
Additional strategies
Stage 3 Reading for
Learning “the New”
·
Expand vocabularies
·
Build background and world knowledge
·
Develop strategic habits
Stage 4 Multiple
Viewpoints
·
Analyze texts critically
·
Understand multiple points of view
Stage 5 Construction
and Reconstruction
· Construct understanding based on analysis and synthesis
Reading Comprehension
the capacity to perceive and understand the meanings communicated
by texts
Levels of Comprehension
·
Literal – reading the lines
·
Interpretative – reading between the lines
·
Critical- reading beyond the lines
·
Evaluative/Creative- Metacognition
Generally reading
comprehension skills are:
Note details
·
Locate answers to wh, how, why questions
·
Demonstrate knowledge of story grammar bybeing
able to identify setting, characters andmain events
Get the main idea
·
Distinguish big ideas from small ideas
·
Give appropriate title
·
Identify key sentence
·
Skim the general idea on what the material is
about
·
Find the topic sentence
Organize ideas
·
Classify related ideas/concepts under proper headings
·
Give a heading or title for texts
Sequence events
Perceive relationship
·
Identify cause – effect relationship
·
Give cause – effect relationship in paragraph/passages
read
Six categories of
reading questions you are sure to face.
Main Idea Questions that test your ability to find the
central thought of a passage or to judge its significance often take the
following form:
·
The main point of the passage is to
·
The passage is primarily concerned with
·
The author’s primary purpose in this passage is
to
·
The chief theme of the passage can be best described
as
·
Which of the following titles best describes the
content of the passage?
·
Which of the following statements best expresses
the main idea of the passage?
Finding Specific Details Questions that test your ability
to understand what the author states explicitly are often worded:
·
According to the author
·
The author states all of the following EXCEPT
·
According to the passage, the chief characteristic
of the subject is
·
Which of the following statements is (are) best
supported by the passage?
·
Which of the following is NOT cited in the passage
as evidence of
Drawing Inferences Questions that test your ability to go
beyond the author’s explicit
statements and see what these statements imply may be worded:
·
It can be inferred from the passage
·
The passage suggests that the author would support
which of the following views?
·
The author implies that
·
The author apparently feels that
·
According to the passage, it is likely that
·
The passage is most likely directed toward an
audience of
·
Which of the following statements about ... can be
inferred from the passage?
Tone/Attitude Questions that test your ability to sense
an author’s or character’s emotional state often take the form:
·
The author’s attitude to the problem can be best
described as
·
Which of the following best describes the author’s
tone in the passage?
·
The author’s tone in the passage is that of a person
attempting to
·
The author’s presentation is marked by a tone of
·
The passage indicates that the author experiences
a feeling of
Determining the Meaning of Words from Their Context
Questions that test your ability to work out the meaning of unfamiliar words
from their context often are worded:
·
As it is used in the passage, the term ... can
best be described as
·
The phrase ... is used in the passage to mean
that
·
In the passage, the word ... means
·
The author uses the phrase ... to describe
Technique Questions that test your ability to recognize a
passage’s method of organization or technique often are worded:
·
Which of the following best describes the development
of this passage?
·
In presenting the argument the author does all the
following EXCEPT
·
The relationship between the second paragraph
and the first paragraph can be best described as
·
In the passage, the author makes the central point
primarily by
·
The organization of the passage can best be described
as
Read the following ethnic passage and apply this tactic...
Lois Mailou Jones is one
example of an answer to the charge that there are no Black or female American artists
to include in art history textbooks and classes. Beginning her formal art
education at the School of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, Lois Jones found
herself strongly attracted to design rather than fine arts. After teaching for
a while, she went to Paris to study, on the advice of the sculptor Meta Warrick
Fuller.
It was in Paris that she first
felt free to paint. Following her return to this country in 1938. Jones had an
exhibit at the Vose Gallery in Boston, a major breakthrough for a Black artist
at the time. Her work during this period consisted of excellent impressionist
scenes of Paris.
It was not until the early
1940’s, after she met the Black aesthetician Alain Locke, that she began to
paint works like Mob Victim, which explicitly dealt with her own background as
a Black American. Later, in the fifties, she went often to Haiti, which had yet
another influence on her style. Then a sabbatical leave in Africa again changed
her imagery. Indeed, the scope of this distinguished artist’s career so well
spans the development of twentieth-century art that her work could be a
textbook in itself.
Now look at a question on this passage. It’s a good example
of a main idea question.
The passage primarily focuses on the
A.
influence of Lois Jones on other artists
B.
recognition given to Lois Jones for her work
C.
experiences that influence the work of Lois Jones
D.
obstacles that Lois Jones surmounted in her career
techniques that characterize the work of Lois Jones
Look at the opening and summary sentences of the two
paragraphs that make up the passage. Lois Mailou Jones is one example of ...
Black or female American artists to include in art history textbooks and classes.
It was in Paris she first felt free to paint. “Indeed, the scope of (her)
career so well spans the development of twentieth- century art.” Note
particularly the use of the signal word “indeed” to call your attention to the
author’s point. Lois Jones has had a vast range of experiences that have
contributed to her work as an artist. The correct answer is Choice C. Choice A
is incorrect. The passage talks of influences on Lois Jones, not of Lois
Jones’s influence on others. Choice B is incorrect. The passage mentions
recognition given to Jones only in passing. Choice D is incorrect. There is
nothing in the passage to support it. Choice E is incorrect. The passage never deals
with specific questions of craft or technique.
Try this question on the author’s technique, based on the
previous passage about Lois Mailou Jones.
Which of the following best summarizes the relationship
of the first sentence to the rest of the passage?
A.
Assertion followed by supporting evidence
B.
Challenge followed by debate pro and con
C.
Prediction followed by analysis
D.
Specific instance followed by generalizations
E.
Objective reporting followed by personal reminiscences
The correct answer is Choice A. The author makes an
assertion (a positive statement) about Jones’s importance and then proceeds to
back it up with specific details from her career. Choice B is incorrect. There
is no debate for and against the author’s thesis or point Jones; the only
details given support that point. Choice C is incorrect. The author does not
predict or foretell something that is going to happen; the author asserts or
states positively something that is an accomplished fact. Choice D is incorrect.
The author’s opening general assertion is followed by specific details to support
it, not the reverse. Choice E is incorrect. The author shares no personal memories
or reminiscences of Jones; the writing is objective throughout.
This third question on the Jones passage is a title question.
Note how it resembles questions on the passage’s purpose or main idea.
Which of the following is the best for the passage?
A.
Unsung Black Artists of America
B.
A Hard Row to Hoe: The Struggles of Lois Jones
C.
Locke and Jones: Two Black Artistic Pioneers
D.
African and Haitian Influences on Lois Mailou
Jones
E.
The Making of an Artist: Lois Mailou Jones
Of the titles suggested, Choice E is best. The passage
refers to the many and varied
experiences that have made Jones an important figure in
the world of art. Following her progress step by step, it portrays “the making
of an artist.” Read the following scientific passage and apply this technique.
Prostaglandins are short-lived
hormonelike substances made by most cells in the body after injury or shock.
They are responsible for a number of physiological reactions. Prostaglandins
have been shown to influence blood pressure, muscle contraction, and blood
coagulation and are involved in producing pain, fever, and inflammation. When release
from platelets – minute discs in the blood – a prostaglandin derivative called
thromboxane makes the platelets clump together and thus initiates clotting.
In 1971, John Vane, a British
researcher, discovered that aspirin interferes with the synthesis of
prostaglandins. Scientists now know that aspirin relieves pain by inactivating
cyclooxygenase, an enzyme that aids in initiating the synthesis of prostaglandins.
When scientists realized that aspirin can also interfere with clotting, they
began to wonder whether it could help prevent heart attacks and strokes, which
are often caused by blood clots that block arteries in the chest and neck.
Studies now indicate that low
daily dose aspirin can cut the risk of the second heart attack by about twenty
percent and the risk of a second stroke by nearly half. It seems logical to
assume that if the drug can prevent second heart attacks, it can also ward off an
attack the first time around. Therefore, many doctors recommend an aspirin
tablet every other day to people who have high blood pressure or other symptoms
that increase the risk of heart attacks.
According to the passage, prostaglandins play a role in all
of the following EXCEPT the
A.
Clotting of blood
B.
Sensation of pain
C.
Contraction of muscles
D.
Manufacture of platelets
E.
Inflammation of tissue
Watch out for questions containing the word EXCEPT. To
answer them, you must go through each answer choice in turn, checking to see if
you can find it supported in the passage. If you can find support for it, then
you must rule it out. When you find an answer choice without support in the
passage, that’s the answer you want.
The last two sentences in the first paragraph are the key
to this question. These two sentences cite the physiological reactions caused
by prostaglandins. Check each of the answer choice against the information in
these sentences.
·
Choice A is incorrect. Prostaglandins influence “blood
coagulation” or clotting. Note the use of clotting, a synonym for coagulation,
rather than the passage’s original wording.
·
Choice B is incorrect. Prostaglandins are
involved in producing pain.
·
Choice C is incorrect. Prostaglandins influence muscle
contraction.
·
Choice E is incorrect. Prostaglandins are
involved in producing inflammation.
The correct answer is Choice D. While prostaglandins do
have an influence on platelets, they play a role in causing platelets to clump
or gather together, not in manufacturing.
When asked to make inferences, base your answers on what
the passage implies, not what it states directly.
·
In language, in thought and action, S.L.
Hayakawa defines an inference as “a statement about the unknown made on the
basis of the known.”
·
Inference questions require you to use your own judgment.
You must not take anything directly stated by the author as an inference.
Instead, you must look for clues in the passage that you can use in coming up
with your conclusion. You should choose as your answer a statement which is a
logical development of the information the author has provided.
·
Try this fairly easy inference question, based
on the previous passage about prostaglandins.
The passage suggests that which of the following would be
most likely to initiate the production of prostaglandins?
A.
Taking aspirin
B.
Spraining an ankle
C.
Climbing stairs
D.
Flexing a muscle
E.
Running a fever
The justification for Choice B as an answer comes in the
opening sentence, which states that prostaglandins are produced in response to
injury or shock. Choice spraining ankle, is an example of an injury. As such,
it is likely to initiate or set into motion the production of prostaglandins.
None of the other choices is an example of an injury or shock. Thus, you can logically
infer they are unlikely to start prostaglandin production going. Taking an aspirin,
in fact, would interfere with or block prostaglandin production. Only Choice B
is logical to suggest.
Now read this fiction passage, taken from the novel The Heart of the Matter by Graham Greene.
“Imagine. Forty days in the boats!” cried Mrs. Perrot. Everything over the river was still and blank.
“The French behaved well this time at least,” Dawson remarked.
“They’ve only brought in the dying,” the doctor retorted.
“They could have done less.”
Dawson exclaimed and struck at his hand. “Come inside,”
Mrs. Perrot said, “The windows are netted.” The stale air was heavy with the coming
rains.
“There are some cases of fever,” said the doctor, “but most are just exhaustion – the worst disease. It’s what most of us die of in the end.”
Mrs. Perrot turned a knob; music from the London Orpheum filtered in. Dawson shifted uncomfortably; the Wurlitzer organ moaned and boomed. It seemed to him outrageously immodest.
Wilson came in to a welcome from Mrs. Perrot. “A surprise to see you, Major Dawson.”
“Hardly, Wilson,” Mr. Perrot injected. “I told you he’d be
here.” Dawson looked across at Wilson and saw him blush at Perrot’s betrayal,
saw too that his eyes gave the lie to his youth.
“Well,” sneered Perrot, “any scandals from the big city?”
Like a Huguenot imagining Rome, he built up a picture of frivolity,
viciousness, and corruption. “We bush-folk live quietly.”
Mrs. Perrot’s mouth stiffened in the effort to ignore her
husband in his familiar part. She pretended to listen to the old Viennese
melodies.
“None,” Dawson answered, watching Mrs. Perrot with pity.
“People are too busy them what work is.”
The evidence in the passage suggests that the story most
likely takes place
A.
on a boat during a tropical storm
B.
at a hospital during a wartime blackout
C.
in a small town in France
D.
near a rice plantation in the tropics
E.
among a group of people en route to a large
Asian city
Go through the answer choices one by one. Remember that
in answering inference questions you must go beyond the obvious, beyond what
the author explicitly states, to look for logical implications of what the
authors says.
The correct answer is Choice D, near a rice plantation in
the tropics. Several lines in the passage suggest it: Perrot’s reference to
“bush- folk,” people living in the tropical jungle or similar uncleared
wilderness; Perrot’s comment about the work involved in growing rice; the references
to fever and coming rains.
Choice A is incorrect. The people rescued have been in
the boats for forty days. The story itself is not set on a boat.
Choice B is incorrect. Although the presence of a doctor
and the talk of dying patients suggest a hospital and Dawson’s comment implies
that people elsewhere are
concerned with a war, nothing in the passage suggests
that it is set in a wartime blackout. The windows are not covered or blacked
out to prevent light from getting out; instead, they are netted to prevent
mosquitoes from getting in. (Note how Dawson exclaims and swats his hand; he
has just been bitten by a mosquito)
Choice C is incorrect. Although the French are mentioned,
nothing suggests that the story takes place in France, a European country not
noted for uncleared wilderness or tropical rains.
Choice E is incorrect. Nothing in the passage suggests
these people are en route elsewhere. In addition, Wilson could not logically
pretend to be surprised by Dawson’s presence if they were companions on a tour.
When asked about an attitude, mood, or tone, look for
words that convey emotion, express values, or paint pictures.
In figuring out the attitude, mood, or tone of an author
or character, take a close look at the specific language used. Is the author
using adjectives to describe the subject? If so, are they words like fragrant,
tranquil, magnanimous – words with positive connotations? Or are they words
like fetid, ruffled, stingy – words with negative connotations?
When we speak, our tone of voice conveys our mood –
frustrated, cheerful, critical, gloomy, angry. When we write, our images and
descriptive phrases get our feelings across.
The second question on the Greene passage is a tone
question. Note that the question refers you to specific lines in which a
particular character speaks. Those lines are repeated here so that you can
easily refer to them.
“They’ve only brought in the dying,” the doctor retorted.
“They could hardly have done less.”
“There are some cases of fever,” said the doctor, “but
most are just exhaustion – the worst disease. It’s what most of us die of in
the end.”
The tone of the doctor’s remarks (lines 5-6, 10-12) indicates
that he is basically
A.
unselfish
B.
magnanimous
C.
indifferent
D.
rich in patience
E.
without illusions
Note that doctor’s use of “only” and “hardly,” words with
negative sense. The doctor is deprecating or belittling what the French have
done for the sufferers from the boats, the people who are dying from the
exhaustion of their forty-day journey. The doctor is retorting; he is replying sharply
to Dawson’s positive remark about the French having behaved well. The doctor
has judged the French. In his eyes, they have not behaved well.
Go through the answer choices one by one to see which
choice comes closest to matching your sense of the doctor’s tone.
Choice A is incorrect. Nothing in the passage specifically
suggests selfishness or unselfishness on his part, merely irritability.
Choice B is incorrect. The doctor sounds irritable, critical,
sharp-tempered. He feels resentment for the lack of care received by the
victims. He does not sound like magnanimous, forgiving man.
Choice C is incorrect. The doctor is not indifferent or
uncaring. If he did not care, he would not be so sharp in challenging Dawson’s
innocent remark.
Choice D is also incorrect. The doctor is quick to counter
Dawson, quick to criticize the French. Impatience, not patience, distinguishes
him.
The correct answer is Choice E. The doctor is without
illusions. Unlike Dawson, he cannot comfort himself with the illusion that
things are going well. He has no illusions about life or death: most of us, he
points out unsentimentally, die of exhaustion in the end.
CRITICAL READING
Should be
·
Skeptical (Just because it’s in print doesn’t
mean it is right)
·
Fact-oriented (Give me the facts and convince me
that they are the relevant ones)
·
Analytic (How has the work been organized?
What strategies has the writer
used?)
·
Open-minded ( be prepared to listen to different
points of view; do not be restricted by personal biases)
·
Questioning (What other conclusions could be supported
by the evidence?)
·
Creative ( What are some entirely different ways
of looking at the problem or issue?)
·
Willing to take a stand (Is the argument convincing?
What is my position on the issue?)
·
One who shows the ability to separate fact from opinion;
recognizes propaganda techniques, compares different sources of information; recognizes
important missing information; draws inferences that are not explicitly stated,
and identifies the author’s background and purpose
CREATIVE READING
·
Must use his/her cognitive processes to develop
ideas that are unique, useful, and worthy of further elaboration
·
Can discover a new or improved solution to a
problem, or a set of new ideas
·
Can organize ideas in different ways, and make unusual
comparisons
·
Must not be inhibited by conformity, censorship,
rigid education, and desire to find an answer quickly
METACOGNITIVE READING
·
Being aware of one’s mental processes such that
one can monitor, regulate, and direct them to a desired end
·
Having the ability to think about and control
own learning
Practicing self-regulation and
monitoring comprehension by answering
the following questions:
·
Are there any words I don’t understand?
·
Is there any information that doesn’t agree with
what I already know?
·
Are there any ideas that do not fit together because
I can’t tell who or what is being talked about?
·
Are there any ideas that do not fit together because
I can’t tell how the ideas are related?
·
Are there any ideas that don’t fit together because
I think the ideas are contradictory?
·
Is there any information missing or not clearly
explained?
Factors that affect
reading performance
1.
What the reader brings to the reading situation (developmental
stages)
·
background experience
·
knowledge of subject
·
vocabulary
·
purpose
·
Motivation and interest
2.
the characteristics of the written text (print material)
·
content
·
format/readability
·
concepts
·
organization
·
author’s purpose
3.
the learning context
that defines the task and the purpose of the reader (reading situation)
·
setting/environment
·
task
·
outcome
4.
the strategies consciously applied by the reader to obtain
meaning
·
Strategy is a systematic plan, consciously adapted
and monitored, to improve one’s performance in learning (Harris and Hodges, 1995)
Example
·
Context Clues
·
Many eleemosynary, or philantrophic
agencies, are helping the poor and disadvantaged people.
·
Maricel was very talkative, but Rico remained
taciturn.
·
Rene gave his fake ID card to the guard and held
his breath. The guard was busy talking to a friend and gave it a perfunctory
glance, so Rene breathed normally again.
Example
·
Structural Analysis
· Prolonged fever made the child suffer from dehydration.
Dehydration: hydro-water; de-down, flow; tion-act
of
Dehydration: act of drying up
Dyslexia: A Reading
Problem
·
A case related to poor reading
·
Brain-based
·
A learning disability
·
Letter /word reversal, inability to
remember/recall written or spoken directions, inability to recall or remember
stories/text recently read, poor spelling and drawing ability, difficulty
understanding or comprehending written or spoken information, left- right
directionality, etc.
·
Comprehensive neurodevelopmental exam
Causes
1.
Visual Perception Difficulty
2.
Auditory Perception Difficulty
3.
Language Processing Difficulty
4.
Ineffective Reading Instruction
Correction
1.
Improving Left-Right directionality
2.
Improving laterality
3.
Improving Coordination
4.
Intensive Phonics Instruction Program