· There is no universal definition of who is a child, adolescent or youth. Chronological age is not a sufficient criterion for establishing operational definitions.
· Childhood is understood in very different ways in different contexts. Childhood is a social and cultural construction, not merely a stage in physical and psychological development.
· Children and adolescents can be especially vulnerable because of their immaturity and dependence, but it is important also to recognize their potential and resilience. A child-centered situation analysis may be important in identifying and assessing the particular needs of children in particular situations.
Although it is common to define children by reference to age and the level of children’s biological and psychological development, definitions of children and of childhood are much more complex than this.
DEFINING CHILDREN BY AGE
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (Article 1) states that “a child means every human being below the age of 18 years unless, under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier” (this appears as Overhead 1.2). While this definition provides a point of common reference for international organizations, NGOs and governments, operational definitions in the field may differ. For example, the International Committee of the Red Cross defines an unaccompanied minor as “below 15 years of age and not being accompanied by an adult”. In contrast, the UNHCR definition is consistent with the CRC and sets “under 18” as the age for inclusion in family tracing services. During the return of African National Congress members to South Africa, the term “youth” was widely applied to single young men, frequently up to the age of thirty-five. In other countries, the threshold for youth may be at a much younger chronological age.
In many situations of conflict and displacement, the accuracy of children’s ages may be in question. Lack of official birth records can combine with the fact that, in many societies, exact dates of birth are of little importance. In others, children are considered to be aged one at birth. In the context of very high infant mortality, new-borns may not be formally named or even recognized until they have passed a full year, when it becomes more certain that they will survive.
In many cultures there is a distinction
between different stages of childhood -especially between stages of the
“innocence” or “ignorance” of childhood and a later stage of “reason” and
“responsibility”. Many legal codes define the age at which children are legally
deemed to be responsible for their actions.
CULTURAL FACTORS
In different cultural contexts, factors other than age may be important in determining who is a child or an adolescent: factors such as social roles, gender, marital status and the capacity to contribute economically may be more important than chronological age in shaping expectations of children.
Rituals of religion or custom may also confer social status, clearly marking points of transition in rights and obligations in the eyes of the wider community. These may be indirectly linked to age, notably the onset of puberty. In many cultures, adolescents, both boys and girls, go through rites of passage which, once successfully completed, confer adult rights and responsibilities. The ability to maintain such customs is often difficult in the context of displacement, where lack of income and access to important resources may delay or dilute these practices.
An assessment of the way universal principles, national laws, local regulations and customs shape expectations of children at various ages should be the starting point for intervention.
In the context of displacement and other
circumstances of severe adversity, children may find themselves assuming roles
that have not been traditionally prescribed. This can include becoming the head
of a household. Some illustrations are given in Overhead 1.3.
CHILDHOOD AS A SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONCEPT
Childhood is neither timeless nor universal: it is not determined only by age, or by biological and psychological factors. Rather childhood is understood by reference to particular cultural and social contexts and to particular periods in history. Childhood in Mexico is not the same as childhood in Madras or Madrid: childhood at the beginning of the third Millennium in London is not the same as it was two hundred years ago. In the more developed countries of the north, for example, childhood is now seen as an extended period of economic dependency and protected innocence during which play and schooling are seen as central components: but this is far removed from childhood in many other cultures, where work (whether paid, or work within the household) must take precedence over both schooling and play. In many countries of the south, the child-rearing environment is characterized by large families and high infant mortality: a heavy emphasis on parents’ efforts to ensure the physical survival of their children means that parents must devote much of their time to economic and domestic activity, with many “parenting” tasks delegated to other people, often older children. Western notions of childhood often place an emphasis on children’s vulnerability and innocence, but again in other contexts this may be much less appropriate. Many child-rearing practices also reflect particular cultural contexts: in some contexts in Asia, mothers may be quite protective of their children, seeking to keep their infants quiet and contented, and as they grow up there may be an expectation of compliance and conformity, and an acceptance of adult authority: by contrast, many American parents may encourage open, expressive, autonomous and assertive behaviour and allow a pre-school child to take physical risks that would be unacceptable to many Asian mothers.
In both instances there may be marked ways in which girls are treated differently from boys. In some contexts, being a boy, or a girl, may be more significant than the fact of being a child. Different societies have contrasting ideas about both children’s vulnerabilities and their capacities, about how they best learn, about what is good for them and what is bad for them. Within a given context, childhood is often highly differentiated not only according to gender, but also according to social class or caste. Approaches to discipline and punishment will also vary greatly between cultures: severe corporal punishment may be the norm in some societies but be regarded as abusive in others. Clearly, for families who seek refuge in countries where norms are very different from those to which they are used, there is considerable potential for conflict and confusion. Exercise 1.2 provides an example. Exercise 1.3 provides an example of the different ways in which young people may be considered to be responsible for their actions.
It has sometimes been suggested that the CRC and other international instruments reflect a “globalized” conceptualization of the child and of childhood which do not always sit comfortably with the reality of many countries of the South. The CRC, for example, tends to emphasize schooling and play rather than acknowledging work as a legitimate aspect of childhood. On the other hand, it is widely acknowledged that the CRC does provide an extremely valuable reference point which offers universal standards to be aspired to.
Care must be taken to avoid introducing expectations and norms of childhood derived from one situation into another, different cultural context. The ARC materials contain many examples of situations where it is essential to have a comprehensive grasp of the culture in order to understand and make sense of what children experience - whether in respect of separation from the family or other carers, exploitation, disability and so on. Without an informed cultural lens, and the capacity to communicate with children, negotiations around different child[1]rearing practices and norms are likely to produce conflicts that do not serve the best, long-term interests of the child.
AVOIDING ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT VULNERABILITY IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
Children may be especially vulnerable because of their immaturity and reliance on adults for their care and protection. But it is also important to remember that resilience as well as vulnerability is a characteristic of the growing human organism. This will be explored in more detail in Topic 3. Many different factors, relating to the individual child, the family, the immediate social situation and the wider cultural context may combine to place children in a position of risk of threats to their well-being, development and rights. The capacity to anticipate, acknowledge and assess such factors is fundamental to the effective protection of children.
In many refugee contexts, programmed
responses emphasize children of primary
school age, who are frequently the most visible group of children. However, the relative invisibility of other groups of children (pre-school children, and adolescents for example) sometimes leads to their relative neglect in programming. Limited visibility of children with disabilities may mean that there are relatively few disabled children within the particular population, or alternatively that they are shut away out of sight and possibly away from human contact and stimulation.
Many of the typically-identified sub-groups of vulnerable children may interact and overlap - for example, separated children, street children, child soldiers, child headed households and so on. While it may be vital to identify particular groups of children whose development and well-being is threatened, the targeting of special assistance to these groups of children may have negative, unintended consequence if the long-term goals of social and economic integration are not fully appreciated.
A child-centered situation analysis is an
important tool for assessing the particular needs of various categories of
children and adolescents who may require special attention if their assistance
and protection needs are to be met adequately. The views of the children
themselves, the opinions of adult community members and the insights of local
leaders are all essential in determining the extent to which particular
children may be at risk. Reference may be made to the ARC Resource Pack on
Situation Analysis for further information on this subject.
TRAINING MATERIALS FOR TOPIC 1
1.
Overhead 1.1: Key Learning Points for Topic 1: Summary of the key
learning points
2.
Overhead 1.2: CRC Definition of Who is a Child : Provides the text
for the CRC, Article 1
3.
Overhead 1.3: Views of Children and Adolescents : Provides some
quotations from Young People
4.
Exercise 1.1: Discussion Questions: Discussion
questions on definitions of children
5.
Exercise 1.2: Child or Adult?: An examination
of the role and status of a young person
6.
Exercise 1.3: Are Children Responsible for their
Actions?: Examines
issues concerning the age at which children become responsible