LITERATURE (Final Coaching)

LITERATURE

“Literature is the mirror of the society.”

            The adage above is one of the most commonly used definitions of Literature… cliché as it may sound, still, it is true. Literature traces the past mimics the present, and sometimes it also predicts the future. A piece of literature describes a milieu, a collection of it may describe an epoch, and the great ones determine what will be.

            Great as it sounds; literature’s power is still under the control of the human mind. A well written piece might be a trash for someone who doesn’t understand… a piece of literature can be a catalyst and at the same time a freezer… a piece of literature can promote unity and at the same time evoke division… needless to say, literature is capable of doing things that may vastly change the pace and the face of history.

            Since that literature transcends both the old and the civilized world, it would be a tasking job to learn and discover the beauty of it. Nevertheless, this book will help you in this difficult, yet worthwhile endeavor. This will not promise absolute understanding but this will be in charge of triggering the curiosity that lies deep within each of us – en route to embracing and loving literature.

            This book will trace back literature from the classical times including Greek, Roman, and even literatures from the early ages, up to the middle ages, the dark ages, the renaissance, and up to the contemporary times.

            This will also help you in rediscovering literatures from England, The Americas, Africa, Asia, and of course, our country – The Philippines. This will also tackle some approaches and methods on how to analyze and criticize a piece of literature. It also presents different literary movements that have shaped and have still been shaping the world.

LITERATURE

WORLD LITERATURE

French Literature

            French literature is considered one of the greatest literatures if all time. In general, it is focused on national pride and national identity. It is also a fact that most European literary movements originated from France – making its literature worth reading and emanating.

The Middle Ages

10^th Century                - most writers used Latin in their works

11^th Century                - literature in French emerged in the form of epics and

poems

- the “Chanson de Geste” was written – this is about the heroic deeds of the knights battling with or against Charlemagne

- “Chanson of Roland” was written

- considered a masterpiece among the 80 chansons

- about the death of Charlemagne’s nephew, Roland

12^th Century                - The “Romans Courtois” was written.

                                    - written in verse in Roman tongue

                                    - must be read aloud before an aristocratic audience

                                    - about the heroism of the knights fighting for their ladies

                                    - most were set at King Arthur’s court

                                    - steeped in the Celtic Mythology of Brittany, Cornwall,

and Wales

- “Tristan and Isseult” was written

- evocated a love that is as strong as death

- inspired poets in Europe

- this was the basis of “Tristan and Isolde” by Richard

Wagner

- Chretien de Troye was considered the greatest poet of

this era

- he wrote “Erec”, “Lancelot”, and “Perceval”

- Lais became very famous

- these are short Roman Courtois

- Marie de France was the most famous writer of Lais

- “Roman de la Rose” was written

- this is the single most significant medieval poem

- the first part was written by Guillaume de Lorris (1230)

- the second part was written 40 years after by Jean de

Meung

- the Fabliaux become famous

- these were short narratives in simple, earthy, and

bantering Verses

- fables were also famous

- fables are stories with animals as the characters

- the most celebrated fable of this time is “Reynard the

Fox”

- the “Testament” (1461) was written by Francois Villion -

the greatest poet of the late medieval period

- Billion was a thief, murderer, and prison inmate

The French Renaissance

1534                            - Francois Rebalais pioneered the rebirth in France

through his work “Gargantua”

1500’s                          - the literature and thought of antiquity was revived

                                    - printed books became popular

                                    - translation of ancient texts were encouraged

                                    - precise critical methods were developed

                                    - Humanism was forged

                                    - Protestantism emerged and competed with Catholicism

pioneered by John Calvin

- Michel de Montaigne, a humanist, invented the genre,

“essay”

- Pierre de Ronsard was considered by the prince of

Renaissance poets

The Victory of Classicism

17^th Century                - considered the Golden Age of literature (the reign of

Louis XIV)

- the reinforcement od royalty and the Catholic Church

was evident

1635                            - Cardinal Richelieu founded the “Academie Francaise”

                                    - the aims of the school were language regulation and

literary expression

1600’s                          - there was a faction between writers who are for

creative freedom (baroque) and those who are for strict

acceptance of literary rules

- Classicism won over baroque

- Nicolas Boileau-Despreaux, founder of literary criticism,

codified the components of French Classicism

- in his book, “Art of Poetry” (1674) he said that

outstanding literary values must be reason, proportion

and harmony

- two great dramatists emerged in this period

- Pierre Corneille

- wrote “The Cid” (1637) – it is a conflict between Duty

and Passion

- wrote in accordance with Aristotelian ideals of Time,

Place and Action

- Jean Racine

- wrote “Andromache” (1667) and “Phaedra” (1677)

- used a simpler style in writing and used realistic

characters and plot structures

- novels in this era were long, diffused, and filled with

improbable Adventures

The French Enlightenment

18^th Century                - characterized by the spirit of scientific inquiry

                                    - the French monarchy experienced a decline in authority

                                    - Pierre Bayle wrote “Dictionnaire Historique et Critique”

(1704)                          - he was an advocate of religious toleration

                                    - he set the tone of the literature of that century with his

works

1700’s                          - Voltaire wrote “Dictionnaire Philosophique” (1764)

                                    - he wrote tragedies in classical mode, works of history,

deistic poetry and light verse

- Charles de Montesquieu wrote “The Spirit of the Laws”

(1748)                          - he adopted the method of comparative analysis

                                    - Jean Jacques Rosseau wrote “The Social Contract”

(1762)                          - he asserted the idea of the collective sovereignty of the

people

- he was a forerunner of Romanticism and popularized

the term “return to nature”

- poetry in this century was characterized by the

desiccating influence of rational analysis

- only one poet emerged – Andre Chanier

- his works were influenced by harmonies of classical

Greek and by love of liberty

The 19^th Century French Literature

19^th Century                - characterized by the transition and triumph of the

Romantic Movement that started in the 18^th century

- poetry regained its strength as a literary genre

- novels dominated this era because of its suitability in registering Social Upheavais

- most of the themes in literary works were the conflicts between Reactionaires and Liberals; The Church and the Anticlericals; and the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat

1800’s                          - Vicomte de Chateaubriand wrote a novel defending the

Catholic Church entitled “The Beauties of Christianity”

(1802)

- Alphonse de Lamartine brought French poetry back to its lyric roots with “Meditations Poetiques” (1820)

- Theophile Gautier made the first break in Romanticism who has the credo “Art for Art’s Sake”

- he announced the arrival of the Parnassians – a group of poets who believed in the importance of formal perfection and objectivity

- Charles Baudelaire wrote “The Flowers of Evil” (1857)

- he had Parnassian influences but he was determined to create beauty out of morbid and horrific things

1830-1850                   - there were enormous changes in terms of novels in the

span of 50 years

- Madame George San exemplified romanticism in its most individualistic sense.

- Stendhal injected the dominant role of passion in a romantic novel

- Victor Hugo, the representative of the romantic credo, evocated medieval Parisian life, seen in his work “The Hunchback of Notre Dame” (1831)

- Honore de Balzac introduced Realism in the latter part of the century through his work “Human Comedy” (1842)

- Realism was triumphantly realized in the novel, “Madame Bovary” by Gustave Flaubert (1857)

- Guy de Maupassant wrote short stories that were characterized by irony and reality

The 20^th Century French Literature

20^th Century                - characterized by the expansion in literary works and the

fast paced experimentation with fresher means of expression

- most works were influenced by Marxism and Freudianism

- symbolisms continued to be the inspiration of French poets

- Guillaume Apollinaire coined the term “Surrealist”

- Surrealism’s aim is to revolutionize poetry through an exploration of the subconscious

1930’s                          - Jean Paul Sartre led the existentialist movement in

France

- he believes that human beings have the right to choose and to forge one’s own values

1950’s                          - the Antinovel or the New Novel became popular

- the writers of antinovels reject plot and verisimilitude as traditionally understood

Italian Literature

Italian literature is characterized by fidelity to tradition, respect for style, and concern for political and social queries. Italian literature (works in Italian language) was considered slow developing because Latin was used in Italy for a very ling time. Only during the reign of Frederick II that Italian literature flourished. It started with the writers who were members of the Sicilian school. These writers used amatory substance of the Provencial troubadours in their lyrics. They also added their own refined style.

After death of Frederick II, the North of Italy became the center of Italian literature. Themes of the literary outputs had a wider range (social, political, and religious).

Famous Italian Writers

Dante Alighieri                        - wrote the “Divine Comedy”, which is considered

the greatest poem of the middle ages

- it was a reflection of the 13^th century society

- composed of three books: Paradise, Purgatory,

and Hell

Petrarch                                  - wrote sonnets and songs

-      Italian sonnets are sometimes called

Petrarchan sonnets

- famous for injecting deep emotional commitment and technical mastery in his works

- wrote “Canzonierre” or the song book

- he was a forerunner of humanism and he focused on the deeper appreciation of the classics

Giovanni Boccaccio                 - friend and admirer of Petrarch

                                                - wrote the “Decameron” (1351-1353)

Leon Battista Alberti               - he was also an architect

- wrote “On the Family” (1433-39) – which was a lengthy treatise

Luigi Pulci                                - polished the Carolingian epic in his work

“Morgante Maggiore”

Ludovico Ariosto                     - wrote the romantic epic “Orlando Furioso” (1532)

Nicolo Machiavelli                  - author if “The Prince” (1532) which was a unique

political work that examined the real from the ideal

Baldassare Castiglione           - author of “The Courtier” (1628), which was as

about the court life and manner in the renaissance

period

Alessandro Manzoni               - the leader of the Italian Romanticism

-      wrote the semi-romantic historic novel, “The

Betrothed”

Greek Literature

The Greeks produced the earliest literature in Europe. They served as the pioneer of all western literature in both prose and poetry. It also survived all challenges – including time. It also became the basis of other literatures in Europe on rebuilding their traditions.

The Archaic Period (8^th to 6^th Centuries BC)

Greek literature began with the epics “The Odyssey” and “The Iliad” by Homer Iona, where Homer came from, was considered the cradle of the ancient philosophy, science and historiography. Athens, which was destined to be the haven of great literature, was quiet at this time, but in the 6^th century, Solon wrote his great personal and political poems. One of the most famous figures in this time was Pindar from Thebes.

The Classical Period (5^th-4^th Centuries BC)

During this period, Athens entered its Golden Age (6^th Century). Tragic drama was one important literary genre in this period. The plays showed archetypal figures of heroic myths to show man’s life and his position in the universe. In this period, three tragedians emerged name, Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles. Amidst the fame of Tragedies, one comedy play writer emerged – Aristophanes.

This era also produced many great orators such as Gorgias, Lysias, Andocides, and Antiphon. Philosophers in this era also questioned some ancient beliefs, which became the basis of some thought by Socrates. Hippocrates and Herodotus were also notable literary figures of this time. Herodotus wrote the history of the Persian War that chronicles Athens’ day of triumph. On the other hand, Thucydides chronicled the war against Sparta and the decline of Pericles. By the end of the 5^th century, Athens’ political supremacy declined.

During the 4^th century, two great Greeks emerged – Xenophon and Plato. These two, however, went into different directions. Xenophon focused on history, philosophy and other interests, while Plato (student of Socrates) moved away from civil life and founded a school (The Academy). Plato’s student, Aristotle, also founded his own school (The Lyceum) and widened the range of Greek philosophy.

The Hellenistic Period (3^rd and 3nd Centuries BC)

            Alexander’s death in the year 323 paved the way for a new literary age. It was said that Athens was overshadowed by the other colonies of the empire (Asia, Macedonia, and Egypt). Writers in this age focused more on the personal aspects of life rather than on panoramic view. Most of the themes of the literary works in this tome were about the attainment of happiness, and living rightly. A library in Alexandria became very famous and attracted many scholars such as Apollonius of Rhodes and Callimachus. Both of these writers focused on literature for the educated and not for the public at large. Among the roster of Greek writers were Polybius (historian), Plutarch (biographer), Lucian (Satirist), Longus (prose), and Plotinus (Neoplatonism).

German Literature

            German literature embraced not only the literature from Germany but also from Austria, and German-speaking parts of Switzerland. German literary writers tried to inject foreign concepts such as France. That is why German literature (works written in German) emerged only before the 17^th century.

Early and Medieval German Literature

800-1050                     - there was a conflict between the heroic tradition of the

Germanic tribe (honor, valor, and fate) and the Christian gospel (humility, renunciation, and love)

- “The Song of Hildebrand” (800) was written

- an alliterative verse fragment

- emphasized fate, therefore considered pagan

- “Heliand” (830) was written

- a Christian counterpart of “The Song of Hildebrand”

- an epic poem about the life of Christ

- Otfriend von Weissenburg wrote “Evangelienburch” (870)

- Monasteries in this era served as centers of culture

- Old high German was replaced by Latin

- classical hexameter was introduced through”Walter of Aquantine” (930)

- “Ecbasis Captivi” (940) was considered the very first fable in Germany

- “ Ruodlieb” (1050) was written

- Hroswitha von Gandersheim (950) was known as the first German writer

1050-1300                   - German literature reached its golden age (1180-1220

                                    - Secular culture became the concern of the knights who

celebrated courtly love in complex lyrics

- Walther Von Der Vogelweide became very famous

- he overcame literary convention by expressing powerful emotions of love

- Hartman Von Aue wrote “Henry the Leper” (1195)

- Wolfram Von Eschenbach wrote “Parzival” (1210)

- “Nibelungenlied” (1200) was considered the greatest German epic

1300’s                          - knighthood declined and paved the way for the rise of

city burghers

- dramas in this period were mostly parodies and satires

with course humor

- popular literature flourished

- Chapbooks were widely read (chapbooks are simple

romantics verses)

- Faust legend became very popular and had several

version

1400’s                          - Martin Luther translated the Bible into German

The 17^th Century

1600’s                          - characterized by the German belief that their language

is superior to the other languages

- Sprachgeselischften (Academies) were founded to

improve grammar and establish a pure language

- the tenet of Neoclassicism were formulated (1624) by

Martin Opitz

- There was an obvious distinction between the

tragedies and drama

- There were two types of drama in this era – those

modeled from Seneca and those made by the Jesuits (in

Latin

- in terms of poetry, the sonnet and the alexandrine

verse were preferred

The 18^th and the 19^th Centuries

1700’s                          - there were two opposing movements that concern poetic theory – the French classical and those who followed the influences of religious epics

                                    - Gotthold Lessing introduced the concept of tragic experience

                                    - he changed courtly tragedies into bourgeois drama

- he wrote “Minna Von Barnheim” (1767) – the best German comedy

1770-1785                   - also called the “Sturm and Drang” movement

- this was  characterized by the praising of original genius and demanding a poetry of strong emotions

founded by Johann Gottfried

1800’s                          - the romantic movement in Germany started

- the aim of this movement was to present passion regardless of any traditional forms

20^th Century Literature

1900’s                          - Stefan George Rainer Maria Rilke, and Hugo Von

Hofmannsthal introduced symbolism as a reaction to naturalism

1910-1925                   - Expressionism became very active as a literary

movement

Russian Literature

            The conversion of Russia into Christianity paved the way for the dawning of Russian literature in the early 10^th century. During this time As Kiev was the most important city in Russia; that is why this period is also called the Kievan Period. The writers during this time used Old Church Slavonic in composing literary pieces. Most of the written literatures in this time were Biblical and Liturgical texts, and some romances from Greece.

The Muscovite Period

1240-1480                   - the princess of Russia ruled as Tartar Vassals

                                    - Moscow ascended as Russia’s most important city

                                    - literature remained religious, historical, and didactic

- most of the themes are focused on the lives of the saints and some chronicles

The 18^th Century

1682-1725                   - this era was led by Tsar Peter the Great

- Russia was under the influence of the literatures in Western Europe

- many Russian writers strove to equal the literatures of neighboring countries

1709-1744                   - Antioch Kantemir wrote the first poem using the vernacular language entitled “On the Detractors of Learning, to my Mind” (1729)

The 19^th Century

1800’s                          - during this period, one poet emerged – Aleksandr Pushkin

                                    - he wrote the verse novel “Eugene Onegin” (1823)

                                    - after the fame of Pushkin, there was a shift from poetry to prose

                                    - Nikolai Gogol introduced realism as a reaction to romanticism

                                    - Realism became very famous in the mid-part of the 19^th century

                                    - Russian realism focused on the urge to explore the human codition in the spirit of serious enquiry

Famous Russian Writers

Ivan Turgenev             - famous for his “Sportsman Sketches” (1847)

                                    - this is about the serf of life

                                    - famous for his love stories and the sequence of sic novels including “Fathers and Sons”

Fyodor Dostoyevsky    - famous for his novel “Crime and Punishment”

Leo Tolstoy                  - famous for his masterpieces “Anna Karenina” and “War

and Peace”

Anton Checkhov          - famous for his short stories and plays

- considered as Russia’s greatest dramatist

- his plays are about isolation and despair

- his works include: “Uncle Vanya”, “The Three Sisters”, and the “Cherry Orchard”

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